个体主义和集体主义的跨文化心理学研究述评

在跨文化心理学的研究中,研究者常常将个体主义和集体主义作为决定个体行为和价值观的两种不同的文化变量,寻找人类心理和行为在不同文化背景下的普遍性和特殊性。本文主要论述了个体主义和集体主义的定义,个体主义和集体主义维度,个体主义和集体主义研究方法;对个体主义和集体主义研究的文化局限、测量的方法进行了简要的评价,并对其研究的意义提出了新的展望。     

试论社会主义市场经济与集体主义原则

市场经济的发展对人们的思想道德观念和行为方式产生了很大的影响，传统的集体主义原则面临严峻挑战。有人认为，集体主义原则是计划经济的产物，因而在我国实行市场经济后，集体主义原则就失去了其存在的现实基础，...     

生命与伦理:齐美尔生命哲学基础上的个体法则

以其早年对货币经济下的个体处境及两种个体主义的思考为背景，晚年的齐美尔在生命哲学的基础上集中阐述了有关伦理准则的个体法则。西方的主导伦理思想视伦理为普遍法则对个体行动的约束，普遍法则的合法性建立在一种二元对立的、机械的、理性的、目的论的视角之上。个体法则却以作为应该的个体生命为源泉，打破了以康德为代表的西方伦理思想中的各种视角局限，同时回应了齐美尔早年有关货币经济、文化悲剧和个体主义的思考，提供了一种与功利主义、利己主义等不同的个体主义话语。     

社会性个体的生成：杜威的儿童研究及其社会理论意涵

本文通过集中讨论杜威基于儿童研究而进行的行动力教育,揭示实用主义思想对个体主义的具体理解。在美国镀金时代,孤立个体主义加剧了现代美国人的道德危机和社会分裂。杜威此时进行的儿童研究与教育改革,首要的目标是重新理解现代个体的行动结构和人格形态,以克服孤立个体主义造就的行动难题。利用“刺激—反应”的行动机制,杜威同时结合了自然力量和社会意识,力图在开展行动力教育的过程中塑造一种“社会性个体”。社会性个体一方面保留了源于自然的神圣性,另一方面又不断吸收来自社会的文明传统,以应对现代世界在人心和社会两方面的挑战。本研究有助于我们进一步理解美国社会学的早期思想根基并反思当下的生存处境。     

论西方个体主义的要素及其发展

西方个体主义在西方社会独步一时,只是最近半个多世纪中形成的态势.其要素包括个体尊严、自治、隐私权和自我负责等.进入现代之后,西方个体主义的发展经历了"含混"和"清晰"两个阶段,在英语国家主导资本主义世界之前,个体主义一词通常是含混的、多义的,并且主要是贬义的;在英国为主导,继而由美国为首的西方世界,个体主义的含义逐渐清晰,并且在成为一种世界主导性理念系统.     

也谈美国人需要集体

读了《社会》1985年第1期发表的《美国人开始需要集体了》一文,对作者关于美国集体主义和个人主义的解释提出一点不同看法。文章中讲到,美国人过去“缺少集体主义”,现在,他们开始相信“集体对社会是重要的。”这里有两点需要说明,一是美国人的“集体主义”是什么概念;二是美国人过去是否缺少集体主义。首先,美国人的集体主义同我们对它的理解不同,美国人的集体主义是以个人主义为前提的,也就是说,人们通过集体合作的形式和力量,去实现单靠个人力量所无法实现的个人目标。它不要求在这个集体里的人牺牲个人利益,服从集体利益,也不强调“大公无私”的牺牲精神。如果这个集体的目标同个人的意愿相违背,那么个人主义会同样驱使人们离开这个集体,另寻志同道合的伙伴。美国历史学家坎曼在分析美国人的性格时,把这种“集体主义”称为“集体个人主义”。这才是美国集体主义的核心。那么,美国人过去是否不讲集体主义呢?其实不然。上面提到的集体主义在美国早已存在。就是基督教中所提倡的“舍己为人”的牺牲精神也在某种程度上使得美国人乐于为     

函数功能与文化契约：马林诺夫斯基的文化科学

马林诺夫斯基的参与式观察奠定了现代人类学的基本田野方法。但其方法论并非孤立的调查技术,而是植根于系统的文化科学理论。马林诺夫斯基自觉地与社会契约论、社会学年鉴学派等对话,从个体主义与集体主义的争论中汲取思想资源。他主张“函数功能论”,基于马赫的经验批判主义,反对古典人类学和过往社会理论的形而上学预设,指出文化要素之间普遍关联并相互依存。进而,他以“文化契约论”论述文化与社会组织如何基于个体需求而建立。文化被揭示为一个有机整体,个体为文化所塑造,因此社会与个体是紧密联系、相互依存而非分离的实体。这种文化科学的理论与方法也影响了早期中国社会科学的探索。     

集体主义框架下个人价值定位的历史演进

在中国社会主义发展的不同历史时期,随着经济社会的深刻变革,集体主义发生了重大的改变.集体主义的核心内涵是个人价值定位.在集体主义历史演变的大背景下,个人价值定位经历了一个由从属性的强化到独立性的显现,再到与集体价值有机融合的演变过程.     

功利论和道义论的对立及其超越

功利论和道义论都是以个人利益和社会利益的对立为基础的.功利主义强调的是个人利益,认为社会利益是个人利益的总和;道义论强调的是整体利益,忽视、甚至扼杀个人利益和个性发展.由此,二者在外在的功利价值和内在的精神价值关系上是对立的,在工具性和目的性关系上也是时立的.功利原则把行为所获得的功利效果作为道德评价的标准;道义原则把行为的道德根据归结为它本身的善及符合一定的准则和规范.因此,功利主义所提出的义务是实质性的;道义论所提出的义务是形式的.功利论是在工具或手段意义上来使用道德的;道义论是在目的意义上谈论道德的.因此,功利论提出的是相对的义务;道义论提出的则是绝对的和无条件的义务.集体主义道德避免了功利论和道义论的片面性,实现了时功利论和道义论对立的超越.集体主义道德不同于以"个人本位"为基础的功利主义,它不为利己主义行为作道德上的辩护和论证."每个人的全面而自由发展"是集体主义道德的核心.集体主义道德也不同于以"群体本位主义"为基础的道义论,因为后者是用虚假的集体来压抑、限制个人的自由和发展.集体主义道德实现了外在的功利价值和内在的精神价值的统一,功利原则和道义原则的统一,也体现了道德的工具性和目的性的统一.     

论大学生小团体主义思想的危害及应对措施

笔者认为,作为个人主义扩大化的小团体主义思想、行为制约着大学生的健康成长,破坏着大学生活中的民主、平等、自由的氛围,冲击着大学的公平与正义,对大学集体主义教育也是一大障碍,具有极大的危害性。从排解大学生小团体主义错误思想、行为,帮助大学生正常、健康成长的角度出发,高校可以通过加强集体主义教育,培育公平、正义意识,培养平等、民主、自由观念等方式来挽救身陷误区的大学生。     

Do cultural orientations moderate the relation between Chinese adolescents’ shyness and depressive symptoms? It depends on their academic achievement

We examined the moderating roles of individualistic and collectivistic cultural orientations and academic achievement on the relation between Chinese adolescents’ shyness and depressive symptoms. A sample of Chinese adolescents (N = 492) from an urban school participated in the study during seventh (T1) and eighth (T2) grades. Adolescents self‐reported their shyness, cultural orientations, and depressive symptoms. The school provided records of their academic achievement. Concurrently, shyness and individualism were positively whereas collectivism and academic achievement were negatively, associated with adolescents’ depressive symptoms. Longitudinally, T1 shyness (but not individualism, collectivism, or academic achievement) predicted T2 depressive symptoms after controlling for stability in depressive symptoms. Concurrent relations between shyness and depressive symptoms were moderated by adolescents’ cultural orientations. Specifically, collectivism was protective whereas individualism was harmful, for shy adolescents’ adjustment. Furthermore, collectivism and academic achievement jointly moderated the relations between shyness and depressive symptoms concurrently and longitudinally. The results suggest that cultural orientations may influence shy adolescents’ depression symptoms through individual‐level self‐evaluation, and indicate that cultural factors and academic achievement need to be considered comprehensively for understanding and improving shy Chinese adolescents’ psychological adjustment.     

Bystanders' Reactions to Bullying: A Cross‐cultural Analysis of Personal Correlates Among Italian and Singaporean Students

This study examined the role of attitudes against bullying and perceived peer pressure for intervention in explaining defending the victim and passive bystanding behavior in bullying. Participants were 1031 school‐age children from two culturally diverse settings, namely Italy and Singapore, which are similar on several dimensions (e.g., quality of life, child welfare) but dramatically differ on other aspects, such as individualism—collectivism orientation. Multilevel analyses showed that country and participants' gender moderated the relations between individual predictors and behavior during bullying episodes. In particular, although individual attitudes were a stronger predictor of Italian students'—especially girls'—behavior, perceived peer expectations were more strongly associated with behavior of Singaporean participants. This study contributes to the literature by being the first to provide data analyzing the association between defending and passive bystanding behavior and different correlates using a cross‐cultural approach.     

当代中国企业组织的人本化建构

组织层面的“以人为本”包括“发挥人的效用”与“给人以自主”两个方面。但以个人主义为取向的现代企业组织在集体主义传统浓重的中国日常生活环境下,无法给人以自主;同时,集体主义既是传统生产方式下现代企业组织实现效率的有效手段,更为后工业生产所必需。这就要求现代企业组织来构筑集体主义,以在中国实现“以人为本”,但它不能通过继承中国传统的集体主义来实现,因其缺乏市场经济所要求的个体自由。中国企业组织的人本化建构,要求的是一种由员工持股与现代企业制度相结合所建构的含纳个体自由的新集体主义。     

Beyond Ethnic Differences: Contextualizing the Influence of Ethnicity on Individualism and Collectivism

The relationship between individualism and collectivism (I/C), ethnicity, and four other social variables was examined using data from 453 American college students of Chinese, Korean, and European descent. Measures of Chinese and Korean ethnicity were better predictors of collectivism than individualism. The strength of the relationship between ethnicity and collectivism was reduced substantially, however, once the influence of other social variables was controlled. In the domain of individualism, Chinese and Korean ethnicity were negatively associated with assertiveness and uniqueness, were not related to scores on a measure of private identity, and were not related to valuing of personal openness once frequency of religious attendance was controlled. Discussion centers around the implication of the findings for the broader conceptualization of I/C.     

‘She is looking at me! Shall I share?’ How Chinese and American preschoolers respond to eye gaze during sharing

Previous research shows that the recipient's verbal communication about desires increases young children's sharing behavior. The current study examined how an adult partner's non‐verbal communication through eye gaze influenced sharing behavior in children from different cultures. We presented one hundred forty‐six 3‐ to 5‐year‐old American and Chinese children with a Dictator Game, in which they were asked to distribute resources between themselves and an experimenter. Children were randomly assigned to three conditions, in which the experimenter alternated her gaze between the child and the items that she wanted, or looked randomly around the room, or left when the child made decisions about sharing but claimed to come back later. Results showed that Chinese children shared more than American children did in the alternating‐gaze condition, but not in the other two conditions; furthermore, the experimenter's alternating gaze influenced Chinese children to be more generous, but had no significant effect on American children. This suggests that compared to American children, Chinese children may be more compliant with others’ requests communicated through a subtle cue of eye gaze. The study demonstrates important differences in sharing behaviors between American and Chinese preschoolers, and these differences are consistent with the cultural constructs of individualism and collectivism.     

Parents' Goals for Children: The Dynamic Coexistence of Individualism and Collectivism in Cultures and Individuals

Current scholarship on the cultural value systems of individualism and collectivism, and the associated developmental goals of autonomy and relatedness, has moved beyond grand divide theories to emphasize variation within individuals and cultures. We present a theoretical model on the dynamic coexistence of cultural value systems (at the macro level) and parents' developmental goals (at the micro level). We contend that cultural values and developmental goals that have largely been classified as polar opposites may be viewed as conflicting, additive, or functionally dependent. Parents may view the developmental goal of autonomy as interfering with the goal of relatedness (and vice versa); parents may endorse both autonomy and relatedness; and parents may consider the developmental goal of relatedness to be a path to the goal of autonomy and/or autonomy to be a path to relatedness. These forms of coexistence are themselves dynamic, changing across situations, developmental time, and in response to social, political, and economic contexts.     

Mobile use,personal values,and connectedness with civic life

This study aims to examine whether and how mobile communication enables citizens to translate their value orientations into their connectedness to the civic life. Specifically, we probe the indirect process in which different types of personal values predict key dimensions of engagement with civic affairs through patterns of mobile phone use. We show that individualism is indirectly associated with engagement with civic affairs through informational mobile use, whereas the link between collectivism and community involvement is positively intervened by relational mobile use. Additionally, socio-tropic empathy yields indirect relationships with civic engagement through informational mobile use. Implications of these findings are discussed.     

论中国当代公共行为文明的价值内涵

在西方和中国学者的政治社会论述中,现代公共领域概念涵盖了政治公共领域、文化公共领域和日常生活的公共领域三个相互关联又各具独立性的论题,其中日常生活的公共领域与当代中国人的生存现实最为切近。中国当代公共行为文明的构建蕴含着三个依次递进的价值原则:基于利益纽带的工具性价值,在自主意识与伦理责任之间达成均衡的"健全的个人主义",以及基于"健全的人道主义"的公共精神。     

社会工作何以走向“去社会变革化”?基于美国百年社会工作史的分析

个人治疗与社会变革是社会工作的双重使命,但在实践中,社会工作沉溺于个人服务,社会变革被边缘化或抛弃。这种“去社会变革化”是由专业的内部因素（专业化）与外部的政治（意识形态）、经济（市场化与管理主义）、文化（个人主义）等因素综合作用的结果。具体而言,专业化的科学主义、意识形态的社会控制、市场化的营利主义、管理主义的效率至上、个人主义的“个人自由”与“个人责任”逻辑,都会将专业的焦点引向个人治疗,远离社会变革。于是,专业化盛行、意识形态保守、市场化与管理主义风靡、个人主义高涨的时期,如20世纪20年代、30年代中后期至60年代、80年代,便是社会工作的“去社会变革化”阶段。同时,专业化是“政治-经济-文化”力量塑造的产物。社会工作“去社会变革化”的真正根源在于外部环境的型塑,其中个人主义文化处于主导地位。     

论林语堂的民族观念及自由意识

林语堂深受中西文化浸润,其民族观念体现在他试图通过个人文化趣味与文化感悟,阐发中国传统文化伦理的人文价值及其对应于社会文化选择的个人文化特质,把中国传统文化中以＂刚柔并济＂为特征的道家哲学和儒家＂中庸之道＂合而为一,归结为＂中国的人文主义＂。他从中国传统文化意识中寻求灵感,帮助自己确立了基于个人主义的自由观念,并创建了文学＂性灵论＂,进一步张扬个性。民族观念和自由意识的确立帮助林语堂对中国人的生命意识有了更深切地体会,并在中西文化之间找到了自己的人生信念。