Is It Always Worth Waiting? The Effect of Autonomy‐supportive Teaching on Short‐term and Long‐term Learning Outcomes

Autonomy is known for its positive effects and its use in management practice. Recently an urgent debate has emerged on its drawbacks on individual outcomes. In this study, we investigate and test a model on the effect on individual learning of an autonomy‐supportive teaching style and its interplay with the learner's previous experience and perceived management support. Specifically, while research has emphasized the positive effect of similar contexts, this study focuses on its differential effect on short‐term and long‐term learning outcomes, challenging the traditional view of autonomy. We also explore how job experience and management support can improve the effects of autonomy on individual learning. We test our model by collecting longitudinal data on a sample of 200 individuals participating in a training programme on managerial skills. Our results show that (1) the extent to which teachers were perceived as autonomy‐supportive presents a linear relationship with short‐term learning outcomes (utility reactions) and a positive curvilinear relationship with training transfer in the long term; (2) learner job experience and perceived management support for learning have a positive moderating effect on the linear relationship between autonomy and learning outcomes.     

Consideration for future consequences as an antecedent of transformational leadership behavior: The moderating effects of perceived dynamic work environment

Based on construal level theory and trait activation theory, we examined the effect of consideration of future consequences (CFC) on transformational leadership behavior and leadership effectiveness, as well as the potential moderating effects of perceived dynamic work environment in the relationship. The results showed that: (a) CFC is positively related to both transformational leadership and leadership effectiveness; (b) perceived dynamic work environment moderates the relationship between CFC and transformational leadership—specifically, the effect of CFC on transformational leadership is stronger under low perceived dynamic work environment; and (c) the effect of CFC on leader effectiveness is fully mediated by transformational leadership behavior under low versus high perceived dynamic work environment. Limitations and future research directions are also discussed.     

Need for leadership as a moderator of the relationships between leadership and individual outcomes

Earlier research on situational leadership theories has produced little and partly contradictory evidence about the role of situational moderator variables in explaining the relationship between leadership and outcomes. In this article, we propose to concentrate on need for leadership as a singular moderator of the relationships between leadership and employee outcomes. Using a sample of 958 Dutch employees from various organizations, the moderator hypothesis was tested. Need for leadership was paired with three leadership factors and five outcome variables, generating 15 possible moderating effects. Five of these were significant. Although the findings compare favorably with other studies using leadership moderators, the effects are weak, and there is not much evidence that leadership–outcome relations are reversed by need for leadership.     

The role of sense of coherence in well-being at work: Analysis of main and moderator effects

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the role of the sense of coherence (SOC) as a main effect on well-being and also its possible moderating role in the relationship between work characteristics and well-being in a sample of Finnish technical designers (n = 989). MANOVA/MANCOVA analysis with hierarchical decomposition was used so that the demographic variables (age, occupation gender) were controlled throughout. The results offered strong support for a main effect model of SOC: the stronger the SOC, the lower the level of psychosomatic symptoms and emotional exhaustion. Also, some support for a moderating role of SOC on the relationships between perceived work characteristics and well-being was found. However, these relationships explained only a small proportion of the variance of well-being was found. However, these relationships explained only a small proportion of the variance of well-being indicators. These results showed that the strong SOC subjects seemed to be better protected from the adverse effects of certain work characteristics (e.g. pressure of time). Furthermore, good social relations at work emphasized well-being among subjects with a very weak SOC, whereas these relations matered less in determining well-being outcomes in subjects with a stronger SOC. Finally, some work characteristics seemed to have salutary effects on well-being when accompained by a strong SOC and, on the contrary, pathogenic effects when accompained by a weak SOC.     

The role of sense of coherence in well-being at work: Analysis of main and moderator effects

Abstract

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the role of the sense of coherence (SOC) as a main effect on well-being and also its possible moderating role in the relationship between work characteristics and well-being in a sample of Finnish technical designers (n = 989). MANOVA/MANCOVA analysis with hierarchical decomposition was used so that the demographic variables (age, occupation gender) were controlled throughout. The results offered strong support for a main effect model of SOC: the stronger the SOC, the lower the level of psychosomatic symptoms and emotional exhaustion. Also, some support for a moderating role of SOC on the relationships between perceived work characteristics and well-being was found. However, these relationships explained only a small proportion of the variance of well-being was found. However, these relationships explained only a small proportion of the variance of well-being indicators. These results showed that the strong SOC subjects seemed to be better protected from the adverse effects of certain work characteristics (e.g. pressure of time). Furthermore, good social relations at work emphasized well-being among subjects with a very weak SOC, whereas these relations matered less in determining well-being outcomes in subjects with a stronger SOC. Finally, some work characteristics seemed to have salutary effects on well-being when accompained by a strong SOC and, on the contrary, pathogenic effects when accompained by a weak SOC.     

Shaping emotional reactions to ethical behaviors: Proactive personality as a substitute for ethical leadership

Due to ethical lapses of leaders, interest in ethical leadership has grown, raising important questions about the responsibility of leaders in ensuring moral and ethical conduct. However, research on ethical leadership has failed to examine the active role that followers' attributes play in enhancing or minimizing the influence of ethical leadership in organizational outcomes. We applied the substitutes for leadership approach (Kerr & Jermier, 1978) to ethical leadership and predicted that proactive personality acts as substitute in the relationship between ethical leadership, workplace emotions and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). Data from two distinct samples offered strong support for the hypotheses. Specifically, we found that ethical leadership was significantly and negatively related to negative workplace emotions when subordinate proactive personality was low, but not when it was high, with consequences for OCBs. These findings suggest that proactive personality constitutes an important moderator on the impact of low ethical leadership on workplace emotions, with consequences for OCBs.     

Charisma and organizational change: A multilevel study of perceived charisma,commitment to change,and team performance

What makes people perceive a leader as charismatic, and how do team leaders obtain performance outcomes from their followers? We examine leaders in times of organizational change and investigate the mechanisms through which leaders' change-promoting behaviors are associated with team performance. In a multilevel mediation model, we propose that the indirect relationship between change-promoting behaviors and team performance is sequentially transmitted through followers' perceptions of charisma and followers' commitment to change. A study of 33 leaders and 142 followers provides empirical support for the model, using multilevel structural equation modeling to analyze top-down relationships between leaders and followers and bottom-up relationships between followers and team outcomes. Results suggest that team leaders are perceived as more charismatic when they engage in change-promoting behaviors. These behaviors facilitate team performance through individual followers' perceived charisma and commitment to change.     

Engaging leader – Engaged employees? A cross-lagged study on employee engagement

The goal of this study is to provide a cross-lagged examination of the relationships between engaging leadership, job resources and employee work engagement. We propose a mediation model and we postulate that engaging leadership can increase perceptions of three specific job resources (i.e. autonomy, support from colleagues and opportunities for learning and development) which theoretically correspond to the three facets of engaging leadership (i.e., inspiring, connecting and strengthening, respectively). Subsequently, in keeping with the extant body of Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) research, we link job resources to employee work engagement. Our hypotheses were tested on data collected at two time-points – T1 (N = 759) and T2 (N = 273) –from employees working for a hotel chain in the Netherlands. In line with our expectations, engaging leadership showed a significant cross-lagged relationship with autonomy and support from colleagues, but did not predict learning opportunities and work engagement across time. While we formulated specific hypotheses, we also tested reversed causation relationships. We found no direct effect from engaging leadership on employee work engagement, however, the reversed effect was significant; employee perceptions of engaging leadership were shaped by their own engagement experiences. Importantly, engaged employees at T1 reported more job resources at T2. By providing a cross-lagged examination of our model, we showed that engaging leaders as well as employees’ positive affective state of being engaged, are essential to shaping a resourceful work context. A comprehensive view on the triggers and outcomes of work engagement and engaging leadership is needed, as the traditional unidirectional cause-effect rationale fails to explain how these concepts relate to one another and to employee experiences of job resources.     

The Consequences of Perceived Age Discrimination Amongst Older Police Officers: Is Social Support a Buffer?*

This paper considers the psychological consequences of perceived age discrimination, and the buffering effect of social support. Findings suggest that age discrimination acts as a stressor, with negative effects on job and life satisfaction, perceived power and prestige of the job, and affective and normative commitment, along with positive effects on withdrawal cognitions and continuance commitment. For work‐based social support, there were positive main effects on job and life satisfaction, power and prestige of the job, and affective and normative commitment, and a negative main effect on withdrawal cognitions. However, there were no significant moderating effects for work‐based social support, and we found the anticipated buffering effect for non‐work‐based social support only for life satisfaction, with reverse buffering for job satisfaction and normative commitment     

Intersectionality: Connecting experiences of gender with race at work

In recent years, research from various disciplines, including social psychology, sociology, economics, gender studies, and organizational behavior, has illuminated the importance of considering the various ways in which multiple social categories intersect to shape outcomes for women in the workplace. However, these findings are scattered across disciplines, making it difficult for organizational scholars to leverage this knowledge in the advancement of gender research. The purpose of this review is to assemble these findings to capture how gender and race, when considered in tandem, can generate new understandings about women of different racial groups and their experiences in the workplace. We first provide a review of both historic and contemporary interpretations of the intersectionality concept. Next, using an intersectional framework, we review key findings on the distinct stereotypes ascribed to Black, Asian, and White women, and compare and contrast the differential impact of these stereotypes on hiring and leadership for these subgroups of women. Building from these stereotypes, we further review research that explores the different job roles that Black, Asian, and White women occupy, specifically focusing on the impact of occupational segregation, organizational support, and the motherhood penalty. Finally, we examine how the frequency, emotional toll, and legal implications of sexual harassment can vary for women of differing races. Through this review, we bring attention to the pitfalls of studying women as a monolithic category and call for organizational scholars to consider the role of intersectionality in shaping workplace outcomes.     

The impact of perceived organizational support on work meaningfulness,engagement, and perceived stress in France

This paper aims to show the strategic role of Perceived Organizational Support (POS) in developing positive work attitudes, thereby reducing stress in the workplace. We have conducted an empirical study to understand more about if and how work meaningfulness influence perceived stress and whether work engagement has a mediating effect between these two constructs. Based on the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model and Social Exchange Theory (SET), we hypothesize that POS has both direct and indirect relationships with these variables: meaningfulness, work engagement, and perceived stress. We tested these hypotheses through path analyses on a sample of 1111 employees in France. The results support our hypotheses on a) the negative association between meaningfulness and perceived stress, b) the mediating role of engagement, and c) the direct and indirect effects of POS. The strongest moderating effect of POS is observed on the relationship between meaningfulness and engagement. Our findings have theoretical implications by showing, for example, that POS enhances positive outcomes more than it diminishes negative ones. The results also have practical implications for managers and organizations as they reinforce the interplay of intrinsic motivators (meaningfulness) as an individual process as well as extrinsic motivators (POS) in the realm of an organization's responsibility and interest in strengthening employee engagement and reducing stress at work.     

Inconsistent style of leadership as a predictor of safety behaviour

Abstract

Research on the effects of passive rather than transformational styles of leadership is limited, especially regarding safety-related outcomes in the workplace. Both styles of leadership can be exhibited at different times in the same individual; here we refer to this as inconsistent leadership. In this study, we examine the effect of inconsistent safety-specific leadership style on the safety participation and safety compliance of employees. Operationalized as the interaction of safety-specific transformational leadership and passive leadership, inconsistent safety leadership emerged as a significant predictor of both outcomes in two samples in Canada: a sample of 241 young workers and again in a sample of 491 older workers, who were long-term health care employees. We found that a transformational safety-specific leadership style was associated with greater safety compliance and safety participation in employees. Furthermore, in all cases, the predictive effect of transformational style of leadership on safety participation and safety compliance was attenuated when leaders also displayed passive leadership with respect to safety outcomes. Theoretical and practical implications for safety management are discussed.     

Mission impossible? Effects of crisis,leader and follower strain on health-oriented leadership

Previous studies underline positive effects of health-oriented leadership for follower well-being. However, it is not clear whether and to what extent situational and personal factors influence health-oriented leadership behavior towards employees (i.e., staff care). We examine the effect of crises and the moderating role of strain for the relationship between strain and staff care in two studies. The first study investigated main and interactive effects of crisis and leader strain on staff care in a cross-sectional survey (N = 201). To test for causality, we complemented our findings with an experimental vignette study (N = 169) and extended our findings with regard to the influence of follower strain. As expected, results of both studies showed negative effects of crisis and leader strain on staff care. Furthermore, crisis effects on staff care were contingent on both leader strain (Study 1 and 2) and follower strain (Study 2): While leader strain strengthened the negative relationships between crisis and staff care, follower strain served as a buffer. These findings support the assumption that staff care is at risk in crises particularly when leaders are strained. However, it is a positive finding that staff care is still feasible on a moderate and relevant level and that leaders respond to follower strain with additional efforts regarding staff care even in crises. The study contributes to the clarification and better understanding of situational contingencies of leadership behavior.     

Same difference? Exploring the differential mechanisms linking servant leadership and transformational leadership to follower outcomes

This paper aimed to provide insights into the different mediating mechanisms through which servant leadership (SL) and transformational leadership (TFL) affect followers. We also investigated environmental uncertainty as a moderator of the effects of servant leadership and transformational leadership. Based on the results of two experimental studies and one field study, we concluded that both SL and TFL were related to organizational commitment and work engagement; however, the manner in which they exerted their influence differed. SL worked primarily through follower need satisfaction, whereas TFL worked mainly through perceived leadership effectiveness. The moderating influence of uncertainty was inconsistent across the studies.     

CEO childhood trauma,social networks,and strategic risk taking

Childhood trauma has been recognized as an important aspect of an individual’s early life experiences. However, in research on the upper echelons of organizations, the impact of childhood trauma exposure on CEOs’ strategic decision-making is not well understood. By integrating child trauma theory and upper echelons theory, we develop a framework for exploring how CEO childhood trauma influences strategic risk taking. We suggest that CEO childhood trauma has a negative exponential association with strategic risk taking because of the long-term effects of post-traumatic stress (PTS). In addition, we propose that moderating effects of social networks on the effects of PTS arising from CEO childhood trauma are driven by the two competing functions of social networks: social support and social pressure. We use data on China’s Great Famine to test our theory. By examining CEO childhood trauma and strategic risk taking, our study has important implications for child trauma theory and upper echelons theory.     

Perceived Support and Women's Intentions to Stay at a Sport Organization

Women remain underrepresented in upper management within sport organizations and more broadly. This research examines organizational factors that may affect women's (and men's) likelihood of remaining with their sport organization, which would presumably affect their willingness and ability to step into leadership roles. The research examines the effects of equity human resource management practices, top management support for gender equity and gender‐related barriers on organizational commitment and intent to stay with their sport organization, as well as whether changes in perceived organizational support would mediate the relationships. Results from a survey of current employees in Australian sport organizations generally support the hypotheses. Perceived top management support for gender equity is a strong and consistent predictor of outcomes, and the effect is mediated by perceived organizational support. Implications for top management's role in implementing gender equity practices are discussed.     

The romance of leadership: Rekindling the fire through replication of Meindl and Ehrlich

Given changes in business and society, the romance of leadership theory, which describes a glorification of the perceived influence of leaders on organizational outcomes, is arguably more relevant than at its conception over thirty years ago. This paper presents four studies aimed to replicate Meindl and Ehrlich (1987) early experiment on the romance of leadership, specifically considering the effect of leadership attributions on company evaluations. Studies 1 and 2 are close replications, whereas Studies 3 and 4 provide a conceptual replication drawing from a broader sample in age and work experience and include additional experimental conditions. These conditions vary the gender of the leader and including both success and failure situations, as well as including additional outcomes variables of participants’ behavioral intentions to support, invest, seek employment, or purchase from the company. Taken together, these studies do not support Meindl and Ehrlich’s findings that organizations are viewed more favorably when such outcomes are attributed to leadership. We discuss implications for the romance of leadership theory.     

The Quality of Leader-Member Exchange (LMX): A Multilevel Analysis of Individual-level,Organizational-level and Societal-level Antecedents

We examine the direct relationships for both individual values and organizational-level culture on the quality of leader-member exchange (LMX) in a multilevel, multi-society study. In addition, we investigate the moderating roles of organizational- and societal-level cultures. Using 2343 respondents from 12 samples, we performed hierarchical linear modelling analysis and found that individual-level collectivism and organizational-level clan and hierarchy cultures were positively related to LMX, while individual-level individualism and organizational-level market and adhocracy cultures were negatively related to LMX. None of the organizational culture types or societal cultures had any moderating effects. One implication of the lack of moderating findings is that the main effect findings may be global, suggesting that they are not constrained by the organizational culture or societal culture in which they are embedded. We discuss additional implications for these findings.     

Leader–member exchange and empowerment: Direct and interactive effects on job satisfaction,turnover intentions,and performance

This study examined the moderating impact of empowerment on the relationships between leader–member exchange (LMX) quality and the self-rated outcomes of job satisfaction and turnover intentions, as well as the supervisor-rated outcomes of job performance and organizational citizenship behaviors. Two samples, with 244 and 158 employees respectively, were used to test our hypotheses. Our results provided evidence that in general, empowerment moderates the relationships between LMX and job outcomes. These findings are important as previous research has only tested these variables as independent predictors, but our results suggest the relationships these constructs have with important consequences are dependent on both variables. Practical implications and directions for future research are offered.