Can increased educational attainment explain declining Indigenous fertility?

Prior research shows that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women are more likely to have children and have more children, on average, than non-Indigenous women. However, like those of the total Australian population, fertility rates of Indigenous women have been declining since the 1970s. The decline has been more significant in recent years. Between 2006 and 2016, an increasing proportion of Indigenous women postponed childbirth from their teens into their 20s and 30s, leading women to have fewer children over their lifetimes. During the same period, there was a rapid increase in educational attainment among the Indigenous population. This paper examines educational gradients in fertility among Indigenous women and whether the observed fertility decline is linked with the increased educational attainment. Using data from the 2006, 2011 and 2016 Australian Census of Population and Housing and applying a shift-share decomposition analysis, we find that education has been a big driver of falling fertility rates in non-remote areas. In remote areas, education has had a much smaller effect (except for youngest women).     

Hindu-Muslim differential fertility: how much religious and how much socio?

Data from the Bangladesh Fertility Survey (BFS) of 1975 were used to test the hypotheses that the higher the socioeconomic status, the lower the fertility and the narrower the difference in fertility between Muslims and Hindus; and the lower the socioeconomic status, the higher the fertility and the greater the difference in fertility between Muslims and Hindus. The core group for analysis in this study of women married only once and reported to fecund includes 3914 Muslims and 824 Hindus. Actual analysis was based on fewer than these 4738 because of nonresponse to 1 or more pertinent interview questions used in this study. Multiple classification analysis (MCA) was used to analyze the data. Prior to adjustment for the effect of other variables, the fertility of Muslims was a little lower than that of Hindus. The average number of children born to Muslims was 3.89; it was 3.95 for Hindus. Fertility tended to decline with improvement in socioeconomic status, i.e., increase in the level of education, i.e., no formal and primary level, and this almost converged at the middle and higher educational levels. At the lower levels of education, i.e., no formal and 1-5 grades, Muslims had .19-.34 children more than Hindus. This difference was reduced to .07 children at the middle level education, i.e., 6-9 grades. At the higher level of education, Muslims had .09 fewer children than Hindus, and this difference was statistically significant. Prior to adjustment for the effect of other variables, the fertility of Muslims was higher than that of Hindus at almost every level of age at marriage. This picture was reversed when adjustment was made for the effect of other variables. At the lower levels of age at marriage, Muslims has .23-.20 more children than Hindus. At the middle age at marriage, Muslims had .08 fewer children than Hindus. This difference was statistically significant. There was virtually no difference between the 2 groups at the higher age at marriage, i.e., 20-21 years. The effect of urbanization on fertility by education differed for Hindus and Muslims. For Hindus, fertility at each level of education was higher in urban than in rural areas. For Muslims, fertility at each level of education, particularly at higher levels, was lower in urban than in rural areas. No significant difference was found in the use of contraception between Muslims and Hindus at higher levels of education, but at lower levels of education contraceptive use among Hindus was significantly higher than for Muslims. The findings suggest that with an improvement in education, fertility will decline with a corresponding increase in the use of contraception and the difference in fertility and use of contraception between Muslims and Hindus will disappear. The findings also support the tenet that development, especially education, is the best formula for reducing fertility in poor countries.     

Different Effects of Acculturative Stress and Family Life Stress on Depressive Symptoms among Married Vietnamese Immigrant Women in South Korea

Married Vietnamese immigrant women often face multiple stressors related to sociocultural adaptation and new family lives in South Korea. The purpose of this paper is to identify the different influences of acculturative and family life stress on depressive symptoms among Vietnamese immigrant wives. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey of 301 married Vietnamese immigrant women residing in South Korea. The study utilized linear regression analysis to test the relationships between the variables. The findings show that both acculturative and family life stress are positively related to depressive symptoms. Family life stress influences depressive symptoms to a greater extent than acculturative stress. The study emphasizes the significance of family‐related stress on mental health among married Vietnamese immigrant women in Korea and provides some implications for research, clinical practice, and policy.     

Changes in characteristics of ego-centred networks of female immigrants married to Korean men

This study explores the relationships between social support and social networks of female immigrants married to South Korean men, using two-year data on migrant wives from the Gyeonggi Welfare Panel and an ego-centred network approach. The results suggest that a larger network with less cohesive ties provides more diverse social support for migrant wives. Migrant wives gradually reduce dependence on their family-in-laws and play roles of support givers for those with the same nationality by sharing their experiences in South Korea. The ego-centred network analysis provides a comprehensive understanding of the social networks of married migrant women in South Korea.     

“The Persistence of Parent Repayment” and the Anticipation of Filial Obligations of Care in Two Thai Provinces

With an accelerated and sustained decline in fertility and an increase in life expectancy, Thailand has entered its aging phase at a rapid pace. This raises an important question of who should care for the increasing elderly population. Using a survey of adults aged 16–64 years (n = 742) in two provinces in the north‐east (Kalasin) and south (Phang Nga) of Thailand, this paper explores the expectations that individuals have from their children when they become very old. Only one‐third of the respondents expected to live with their children in old age and only one‐fifth anticipated financial assistance. Less than half of them expected personal care and practical care from their children (43% and 38%, respectively). The expectations varied substantially by the number of children and income, with those with higher income reporting lower expectation. Those living in Kalasin, a much poorer province than Phang Nga, had greater expectations from their children in old age. This suggests that, for those with less financial resources, children remain the main care provider for the elderly.     

Women Reconciling Paid and Unpaid Work in a Confucian Welfare State: The Case of South Korea

The participation of married women in the labour market has been increasing since industrialization in the 1960s in Korea; in 1999 it overtook that of unmarried women. This raises the issue of how women reconcile paid and unpaid work and how state policy responds to this issue. In Korea, there have been numerous policy reforms designed to support working women in combining work and family life. For example, a parental leave scheme was introduced in 1995 and maternity benefits were also introduced in 2001. However, it is doubtful whether these policies can be effective in practice in Korea, where Confucian traditions in respect of women's roles remain strong. Confucian tradition has long influenced Korean society culturally and socially. Although Korean society today is not as Confucian as in the past, some traditions still remain strong, particularly with regard to the family: for example filial piety, seniority, the married woman's responsibility for her parents‐in‐law. This paper will argue that Confucian tradition makes for difficulties in Korean women's experiences of reconciling paid and unpaid work and also affects the formation of state policy. The paper explores the impact of the Confucian welfare regimes on Korean women's experience of reconciling paid and unpaid care work, and questions the gendered characteristics of the Confucian welfare state.     

A lesson learned from community-based integrated long-term care in Thailand

Abstract

Thailand is the second most rapidly ageing of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries. With this rapid pace of population ageing, the demand for long-term care has increased. Due to lower fertility and migration of adult children, the availability of children as a main source of long-term care has been reduced. In order to retain the traditional lifestyle of ageing-in-place, community-based integrated long-term care has been implemented as an alternative approach in Thailand. The development of such community-based care and its challenges can be used as a lesson for other ASEAN countries in confronting ageing societies.     

The consequences of adolescent parenthood on men's depression,parental satisfaction,and fertility in adulthood

This study examines some social and emotional consequences of fathering a child during adolescence in the US. Data are obtained from the 1987/88 US National Survey of Families and Households among 13,017 individuals aged 19 years and older and under age 19 if currently married. This study's sample included only men who reported fathering a child before their 30th birthday and were aged 18-40 years at the time of the interview. There were 227 men who fathered a child before the age of 20 years (Fathered as Teen--FAT) and 1032 men who fathered a child between their 20th and 30th birthday (Fathered as Adult--FAA). Outcome measures include depression (Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression scale (CES-D) and parental satisfaction. Control variables are race, age, number of children, and socioeconomic status. Fertility is a control and a dependent variable. The FAT group had a smaller percentage of marriages, a greater percentage of never married, and a greater percentage of second and third marriages. 32% of the FAT group and only 17% of the FAA group were Blacks. 57% of the FAT group and 72% of the FAA were Whites. The evidence from multiple regression analysis using ordinary least squares techniques supports the hypothesis that adolescent fathers, like adolescent mothers, experience similar long-term outcomes of greater depression and fertility compared to men who become parents "on-time" during their 20s. Limitations to the study are the lack of control for the degree of contact with first-born children, educational status, and standardized measures with group norms. The authors furthermore caution that the study sample may not be representative of men who fathered as adolescents and does not consider mediating factors such as social supports during adulthood. However, the finding that adolescent men and women are more subject to depression regardless of socioeconomic status, race, fertility, or age warrants appropriate intervention strategies.     

The perceived control of well-educated women: 1972–1984

From 1972 to 1984 women's social status changed as ore worked outside the home and family ties loosened. How did their own attitudes change? Did they feel greater power? Did they feel greater mastery? Polls of 567 women in 1972 and 548 women in 1984 respond to these questions. The study found that perceived mastery, but not power, was higher for many types of women in 1984 than in 1972. Also, in 1972 there were differences in perceived control among college graduates. Those with high control were in high-status occupations, were older, were married, and had children. In 1984 only undergraduates with these characteristics were high in control. These results match data from the NORC General Social Surveys     

Social Policies for the Elderly in the Republic of Korea and Japan: A Comparative Perspective*

The Republic of Korea (South Korea) and Japan are highly industrialized and modern nations which are both influenced by the Confucian tradition of respect for the elderly and family responsibility for the care of aging parents. In both countries the proportion of the elderly population is increasing. Japan, since the end of World War II, has utilized its government bureaucracy to help develop the social welfare system and to formulate social policies and programs for the elderly. Japan's tradition of samurai Confucianism is congruent with the commitment of the Japanese government to such social development as a matter of national policy. The Republic of Korea has not assigned a comprehensive planning role to its government bureaucracy. Lacking the mix of industrial/post-industrial infrastructure of Japan and not yet faced with the immediacy of a very large elderly population, the Republic of Korea's government has developed its social policies for the elderly in a more incremental manner, usually emphasizing small scale and piecemeal initiatives. With respect to social support, it has emphasized voluntary family efforts as congruent with the Korean (and Chinese) variant of Confucianism. This paper will compare and contrast these different approaches.     

Asia educates to brake the population juggernaut

Most of the Asian countries have national programs to provide educat ion on all factors that influence population growth. School children are given information on the effects of high birthrates on family and nation. Sloan Wayland thinks that the Asians will become the world's experts in population education. In all 9 countries (Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand) represented at a Meeting of Experts on the Role of University Faculties/Colleges of Education in Population Education in Bangkok, population education in varying degrees had been introduced in primary and secondary schools.     

Projecting Australia's Fertility—Postscript

An accelerated decline in family size has led to a downward revision of projected fertility. Replacement fertility could be reached in the 1980s with births numbering about 250,000 a year. The population is approaching stability at the younger ages. The potential for poverty arising from large families may be halved in ten years.     

The time costs of children

In this study of household time allocations, Turchi argues that children play a crucial part in the trade-off that members of a household must make between time at home and the pursuit of economic gains in the marketplace. Turchi examined data collected by Baumann, Udry, and Turchi in 1977 for a study of marriage and fertility to study how families handle the time that children add to their schedules. Using the data and the theory of utility maximization from economics, the researchers were able to look at the amounts of time a group of parents reported spending in various child-related activities and the impact this had on their economic status. The average number of hours a wife devotes to various activities varies considerably with having children. For example, wives spend 21 hours/week on general housework before having children, 16 hours/week when the children are preschool age, and 13 hours/week when the children are school-age. The child-related housework increased from 0 to 26 hours with preschool children, and then decreased to 21 hours with school-age children. Child care increased to 26 hours/week with preschoolers, and decreased to 20 with school-age children. Outside employment dropped from 29 hours/week to 11 with preschoolers, and increased to 18 with school-age children. Turchi has developed a method for measuring the value of time for nonworking women; it allows more precise understanding of the factors that determine the time allocation of wives, and, in particular, their fertility decision. This method allows the estimation of the monetary value of time spent in housework and child care, which is of great interest to lawyers who specialize in personal injury and divorce cases. While findings may support the argument that individuals who grow up without siblings are more successful, more intelligent, and better educated because of more quality time from parents, Turchi offers a different interpretation. He suggests that sharing a parent's time with siblings also results in quality time spent with a child. 2 children do not necessarily double the time costs of 1. He further argues than the psychological costs per child may even drop as family size increases.     

Evaluation of Fertility Levels and Adjustment of Fertility Policy： Based on the Current Situation of the Chinese Mainland＇s Provincial Fertility Levels

“十一五”期间我国大陆的总和生育率为1．481,呈稳中有降态势,形成了“中、西部中度低水平,东部深度低水平,东北极度低水平”的空间格局。除少数极低生育率省区回升外,实际生育率及其与政策生育率的比值仍在下降。生育率下降的主要推动力是发展,突出表现为生育旺盛期育龄妇女比总人口和育龄妇女的城镇化、非农化水平高、人口外出流动比例大,以及城镇生产、生活方式和文化观念对农业人口的同化作用。发展促使生育率下降的趋势已不可逆转。现行生育政策难以使生育率稳定在合理的低水平。有可能引起政策性反弹的重点在计划生育基础较好的城镇和东部及东北地区;有可能引起非政策性反弹的势能,已基本释放;中、西部农村年轻一代妇女多胎生育平均只有4．12％。生育政策调整完善中的生育率反弹可通过渐进式策略实施有效调控,不会引起生育率大幅强烈反弹。我国生育政策全国统一调整时机已成熟。     

Evaluation of Fertility Levels and Adjustment of Fertility Policy: Based on the Current Situation of the Chinese Mainland’s Provincial Fertility Levels

During the 11^th Five-year Plan (2006-2010), the total fertility rate of the mainland of China was 1.481 and was stable with a slight decline, exhibiting a spatial pattern of moderately low fertility in the central and western regions, very low fertility in the east and extremely low fertility in the northeast. Except for a rebound in a few provinces and regions with extremely low fertility rates, the ratio of actual fertility rates to policy fertility rates is still falling. The reduced fertility rate is mainly driven by development, notably the proportion of the total population represented by the exuberantly fertile women of child-bearing age and their greater urbanization, growing level of non-agricultural employment and outflow from rural areas, as well as the assimilative effect of urban production, lifestyles and cultural concepts upon the agricultural population. Development has catalyzed an irreversible trend of declining fertility; existing fertility policy has proven insufficient to keep fertility rates stable at reasonably low levels. Policy-based rebounds may emerge in urban areas and the east and northeast, where family planning policy has been better implemented; on the other hand, a non-policy-based rebound may have been released. In the central and western rural areas, multiple births occur on average among only 4.12 percent of the younger generation of women. As fertility policy is adjusted and improved, fertility rebounds in transitional fertility policy adjustment can be effectively regulated through a gradual strategy which will not provoke a sharp rebound. The time is ripe for China to conduct a nationally unified adjustment of the existing fertility policy.     

The Western Manager and the Soviet Director A Talk with N.A. Kaniskin,Director of the "Sibelektrotiazhmash" Scientific-Production Association in Novosibirsk

From 1965 through 1996 1.4 million people committed suicide in Russia. Approximately one-fifth of them were women. This ratio is quite stable and close to the world figure of 1 : 3 or 1 : 4. The proportion of women increased notably only in 1985-89, evidently a consequence of the unusual drop in male suicides during the anti-alcohol campaign. In recent years the increase of male suicides has considerably exceeded that of female suicides, which is not rising very rapidly. There were fewer female suicides in 1994 than in 1984, causing the proportion of female suicides to drop to 16.8 percent in 1994 (see Table [1]).     

Understanding the cultural adaptation of foreign wives of South Korean men

‘International marriage’ has increased within rural areas in South Korea. As an increasing number of rural women move to urban areas, men are left facing the challenges of finding appropriate spouses. This issue stimulated support for ‘international marriages’ by the Korean government. A review was carried out of the literature of foreign wives' cultural adaptation in South Korea using the ecological systems. While foreign wives have escaped the hardships of lower economic status in their home country, they often face new challenges in South Korea. The article recommends that one-stop multicultural services are needed to address the cultural issues facing non-Korean women.     

Child Support, Fatherhood, and Marriage: Findings from the First 5 Years of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study

In this article, we review what has been learned to date from the first 5 years of the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing study about child support, fatherhood, and marriage. The article first describes the parents' circumstances at the time of the child's birth, then examines the trajectories of parents' relationships (with each other and others), fathers' financial contributions and other indicators of fathers' involvement with their children 5 years later; and finally reviews what has been learned about the effect of child support enforcement on these three aspects of families' lives. We find that most unmarried parents are either cohabiting or romantically involved at the time of the child's birth, but are a distinctly disadvantaged group as compared with married parents. Five years later, most of these parents are no longer romantically involved, however, most of the fathers are still seeing their children on a regular basis, and about half are contributing either formally or informally to their support. Strong child support enforcement appears to increase formal and decrease informal support from fathers, reduce marriage among parents, and have a weak positive effect on father involvement. More research is necessary to understand whether these findings are robust over time and across samples of unmarried parents.     

Estimates of fertility in Bangladesh

The attempt is made to estimate fertility levels in Bangladesh on the basis of data collected during the 1974 Census. In the 1st section attention is directed to providing an overall picture of the demographic situation in the country. Comparisons between the 1961 and 1974 data demonstrates that the 1974 Census data provide consistent results. Factors such as the degree of urbanization, literacy and economic participation rates--considered as indicators of development--all seem to show little progress during the intercensal period. The use of child/women ratios (CWRs) provides plausible evidence of the likelihood of a fertility decline. A decline in CWR values is small for "all areas" but a marked decline can be noted for "urban areas." The recorded mean number of children is less in 1974 than in 1961 for women under age 35 whereas for the older groups the 1974 Census shows higher mean numbers. The Bangladesh Fertility Survey (BFS) data result for the total fertility rate of 6.58 is very close to that estimated for the 1974 Census--6.59. The reverse survival method also indicates that birthrates have been lower during the 1969-1974 period.     

泰国文化:价值与实践

泰国文化深受泰国历史和佛教的影响,也受到全球经济的影响。泰国文化的内涵也不断修改以适应信息在泰国的流入、富集和复杂性。