Public relations critical intersections special section introduction

The theme of this special section arose from the idea that interdisciplinary interactions, or the cross-fertilization of methods, philosophies, theories, and modes of practice across disciplines, can open out productive ways of addressing complex issues and wicked problems. Our call for papers reached out to public relations scholars and to researchers in other fields to submit articles at these generative intersections at different time. They were invited to reflect on traditional concerns, or current issues, or projected trends in public relations and elsewhere. As editors making a call to open boundaries, we invited participation along a spectrum of possible intersections whether of content, methods, pedagogy or technology. Taking different positions on that spectrum, the articles in the section examine the nature, engagement and evaluation of intersections. In writing this introduction, the editors took an overview of the articles in the light of three fundamental questions: “How and where does interdisciplinarity occur in public relations?”; “Are there indications of how public relations intersects with other fields to engage existing and potential future challenges?”; and “What principles might serve to evaluate answers to questions one and two?” In addition, we explore how each of the selected intersections in the articles might add value to public relations as a discipline and a practice.     

The public relations paradox of erasure: Damnatio memoriae as public relations strategy and tactic

Public relations scholars study how organizations co-create meaning with engaged stakeholders. Not well understood is how and why such co-creation modifies shared meaning, amplifies change, and even “erases” some piece of memory from the public record with the purpose of redirecting and redefining societal narratives. To help establish erasure as a concept for studying public relations, we draw from Freud’s theory of memory to establish a foundation upon which to critique strategic erasure. We adapt Freud’s theory of memory into the intersecting critique of visual rhetoric as public relations by analyzing, via narrative inquiry, remnants of Imperial Rome that have been modified, amplified, but even erased to present Rome’s modern identity. For centuries, even during Imperial Rome, leaders practiced damnatio memoriae —a modern Latin phrase that means “condemnation of memory.” We use this concept to interrogate the public relations identity process Rome’s leaders have used to modify for emphasis and even obliterate Roman elites’ names and images from the texts of public records by destroying, mutilating and modifying statues and monuments as a means for co-creating new public memory. Such analysis reveals how damnatio memoriae helps elites to redefine the “memory” of the Eternal City.     

Online crisis communication in a post-truth Chinese society: Evidence from interdisciplinary literature

Through a thematic content analysis of 118 journal articles from interdisciplinary fields, this study reviews the research trends of online crisis communication literature in a Chinese post-truth society, where objective facts play a diminishing role, and Chinese people are losing their trust, despite the best efforts of organizations to deal with fake news in crises. Results of this study disclose some unique crisis communication strategies (e.g., strategic distraction, rumor-rebuttal, fabrication, acting cute, and content censorship) in crises of China. Influential contextual factors such as the political system, cultural values, and media features are identified as well. Theoretical and practical implications of this study are discussed, and a greater picture of online crisis communication in contexts is posited for future research.     

Reviewing the ‘march to standards’ in public relations: a comparative analysis of four seminal measurement and evaluation initiatives

To many, development and adoption of professional standards for measurement and evaluation (M&E) is one of the most promising approaches for advancing public relations practice. In recent years, there has been a surge in efforts to develop standards for M&E in different parts of the world. Prominent examples of this include standard terminologies, metrics, principles for best practice in the field, and evaluation frameworks. Regardless of their alleged importance, however, the acceptance and application of such M&E standards in the practice varies significantly. To better understand the process by which standards in this field are developed and adopted, this article draws on recent concepts from organization studies (cf. Slager, Gond, & Moon, 2012) to analyze the trajectories of four seminal standards attempts: The Barcelona Principles and the AMEC Integrated Evaluation Framework on an international level, the DPRG/ICV Framework used in German-speaking countries, and the GCS Framework in the United Kingdom. The article reveals, by way of an interpretive qualitative approach, the various strategies undertaken to a) develop common sets of terms and rules, b) engage relevant actors in the design, promotion, and implementation of proposed standards, and c) to reinforcing standards symbolically.     

An Arab perspective on social media: How banks in Kuwait use instagram for public relations

This study examines the public relations functions of eight Kuwaiti banks listed in the Kuwait Stock Exchange Market (KSEM) that post on their Instagram accounts. It also uses market-size, organization, and individual level predictors to model Instagram postings. A content analysis of 1502 posts revealed the banks use Instagram for promotion, information dissemination, community building, and interactive engagement, in that order of prominence. The findings suggest banks operate at the confluence of visual communication through Instagram and integration of religious symbolism to serve a public relations function predicated on image and influence. In doing so, the banks tap into the wellspring of social media use by target publics by navigating a balance between obedience to Allah and meeting bank business objectives. The resulting tension between sacred and secular highlights Arab cultural values and suggests Instagram fosters individualism, which challenges Arab emphasis on collectivism and fractures the notion online platforms can effectively build meaningful relationships that characterize Arab culture. The study posits Instagram is more effective in an Arab context at image building than relationship building, threading the importance of visual communication through social media across Arab culture and global public relations practices.     

Third-person effect in the context of public relations and corporate communication

Inaccurate perceptions of audience can cause public relations practitioners to overreact or underreact to a situation, which brings about unintended consequences. We draw on the third-person effect research to identify examples and outline the conditions when the overestimation or underestimation of media effects can motivate key players to engage in restrictive, corrective, promotional, and resistance behaviors. Then, we recommend approaches that can help public relations practitioners better reflect and manage corporate communication. In short, the approaches involve: (a) determining the nature of the presumed effect from the audience perspective and going beyond the categorical positive/negative message, (b) assessing the level of the presumed effect and considering also the possibility of the first- as well as the second-person effect, and (c) assessing the influence of the perceived effect on behaviors that have the potential to directly as well as indirectly affect the company.     

A global capability framework: Reframing public relations for a changing world

A Global Capability Framework: Reframing public relations for a changing world.This paper describes a two-year research project the purpose of which was to produce the first globally applicable Capability Framework for the practitioner, employer and academic communities in public relations and communication management. Working with partners across seven continents and supported by the Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communication Management, a new approach to building capability was developed via to a four-stage research process, which resulted in nine country and one Global Capability Frameworks. The Global Capability Framework consists of 11 statements which taken as a whole, describe the scope and role of the profession.This paper explores the genesis of the project, a literature review, which also introduces the Capability Approach from the human development field, the research process which involved four different data collection methods, and the content of the resulting Global Capability Framework. The paper concludes with initial responses from the three communities for which the Framework is designed: practitioners, academics and employers. The paper combines theoretical innovation with a valuable practical contribution.     

Public intellectuals,political satire and the birth of activist public relations: The case of Attic Comedy

The purpose of this article is to explore the origins of dissent public relations and to establish its emergence in the context of the ancient Greek comedy represented by Aristophanes. Indeed, Attic Comedy (also known as Old Comedy) was the first great example of today’s mass communication, in which political satire was used to dissent and protest against political and social circumstances in fifth-century BC Athens. This situation was conditioned by the Peloponnesian War and its political, economic and social consequences. From this perspective, this article also constitutes an investigation into the intellectual history of public relations, of which Aristophanes can be considered to be one of the first practitioners.     

A model for value based public relations education in a diverse and poly-contextual society

This paper discusses the merit of using a Value Based Education (VBE) approach to equip future public relations and communication practitioners with the values needed to adhere to ethical practice and foster these values in the organizations they will steward. The approach utilizes in-depth and sustained exposure to complex societal issues to instill an ethical, poly-contextually responsive and diversity sensitive consciousness in students. The need to sensitize future practitioners at institutions of higher learning to the professional requirements of this context and to the inclusive values needed to respond appropriately is an important priority in increasing their strategic relevance globally. This article illustrates how VBE was practically implemented through engaging public relations and strategic communication students in complex social issues such as the plight of economically marginalized communities, human trafficking, and migration. In this paper we propose a Value Based Education model for PR education, based on our experience of teaching Millennial students in South Africa.     

The state of crisis communication research and education through the lens of crisis scholars: An international Delphi study

This Delphi study explores the status of crisis communication research and education qualitatively through the lens of 22 internationally recognized crisis communication scholars, systematically recruited and retained to serve on the crisis expert Delphi panel in a two-year span. Taking a multi-iteration consensus-building approach, this study enabled the expert panel to individually elaborate and collectively evaluate shared observations and insights regarding trends, patterns, and nuances in crisis communication as a unique interdisciplinary area of research and practice. The quality and impact of current scholarship, methodological rigor and diversity, and perceived knowledge gaps between academia and industry were compared and synthesized across countries. Consensus was achieved in the majority of the proposed questions. Results show challenges and particular deficiencies within the crisis communication research domain. The main challenge is bridging the gap between academia and industry. The lack of theory development and cross-cultural studies contribute to part of this challenge. The knowledge and perceptual gaps identified by our Delphi expert panel also suggest a need to align crisis communication academic research more closely with crisis communication teaching. Despite the increasingly broadened presence of crisis communication scholarship, it remains small and stunted at some universities. The discussions and insights that emerged in this Delphi study help pave the way for further research innovation and educational program development in crisis communication.     

Public relations,futures planning and political talk for addressing wicked problems

This conceptual article highlights the separate shortcomings of stakeholder engagement broadly, deliberative engagement specifically, and scenario planning in their separate application to address future problems, especially those termed as ‘wicked’ problems. Taking an interdisciplinary approach, we combine the most relevant and useful aspects of these concepts and outline how, when taken together, they can be used by public relations (PR) practitioners to open ‘political talk’ in order to address wicked societal problems. In doing so, this article follows Turk’s (1986) call to look to future methodologies as way of expanding PR practice beyond the technical, functional skills that have typically defined the field. It also takes up Willis’ (2016) call for PR to take a wider role in helping governments and society tackle wicked problems.     

How understanding multidimensional diversity can benefit global public relations education

This essay offers a novice way to look at diversity as a multidimensional concept. Such approach may help to enrich students’ understanding and appreciation of one another and can contribute to a more fruitful pursuit of global public relations education among undergraduate and graduate students. Specifically, the essay shows how a multidimensional diversity approach can help students to uncover the complexity of their own identities they may not have been articulating in the past. Addressing multidimensional diversity in the classroom can encourage discussions about the importance of diversity in public relations practice and in the globalized society.     

An evaluation u-turn: From narrow organisational objectives to broad accountability

The development of evaluation scholarship progresses, but the slow and incremental steps taken are largely refinements on a direction of thinking that has become established and virtually taken for granted. Most frameworks and models which have gained recognition in the academy and practice follow programme logic methodology. They also point to the achievement of organisational objectives as being the principal, but not always sole, purpose of public relations programmes. The achievement of organisational objectives has therefore been the focus of evaluation.Parallel, to this, a second strand of thinking in the scholarship and practice has questioned the assumption that the meeting of organisational objectives is paramount and whether organisations alone should determine the measures of success. Other perspectives such as stakeholder judgements of success and the obligation of organisations to meet societal expectations have been discussed as legitimate ways in which to evaluate programmes and activities.This paper takes forward this second strand by proposing that the evaluation debate should be ‘flipped’. Instead of organisational objectives being a primary denominator for evaluation, the paper proposes that whether organisations discharge their accountabilities to stakeholders and society is of equal, if not more weight. An organisation will succeed only if it sustains its licence to operate. To achieve that it has to meet the reasonable expectations that licence-givers have and to obtain their active consent to support its actions. The key questions for public relations are therefore: who/what holds us to account? What are their expectations? How are their expectations fulfilled? Drawing on the management and public relations literature to answer these questions, the paper calls for a radical ‘turn’ from the prevailing thinking, which the authors suggest is more about public relations explaining and justifying itself, towards a model that aligns with contemporary management thinking and practice.The paper proposes a model and process that provides a way forwards based not only on organisational aspirations, but on a hierarchy of obligations: to society, stakeholders, the organisation, and to the professional function which runs campaigns. It offers a principles based evaluation approach. In doing so, it takes the evaluation debate in a new direction and thereby adds to theory-building. It also offers a new way forwards for the practice which has become increasingly mired in developing more comprehensive lists of indicators and metrics and expanding taxonomies of evaluation terms.     

The evolution of public relations measurement and evaluation

The measurement and evaluation of public relations effectiveness has long been a major professional and research issue. In the first half of the 20th century, there were two research methods applied, opinion polls and basic media analysis. These were used to plan campaigns and monitor progress of media relations activities. In the second half of the century, as the practices of public relations expanded, greater emphasis was given to media analysis but the evidence of many practitioner studies was that measurement and evaluation was more discussed than undertaken. In the final 25 years of the century, the academic voice began to become more prominent in the discussion and development of methodologies and in nationally-based education programmes aimed at practitioners. The Internet and social media also began to change practices. There were mixed results from this clamour: more practitioners began to evaluate public relations activity (but many still applied discredited measures) whilst new techniques began to be introduced. Document analysis has prepared a timeline of the development of public relations measurement and evaluation. This paper explores the academic and professional themes that have characterised the development of this important public relations practice over the past 110 years.     

McDonald's Japan: A case study of effective public relations

This case study presents how McDonald's Japan improved its corporate image through food education as corporate social responsibility activity. Email interviews with a CSR representative and seven public school teachers who experienced the company's educational program reveal the company has successfully improved its corporate image, which may have contributed to its increased sales performance.     

Integrating management practices in international public relations courses: A proposal of contents

The teaching of international public relations has expanded across American universities in recent times. The dominant paradigm of many of these courses is that a college education should enable public relations practitioners to understand cultural, societal and professional differences across cultures in order to implement campaigns with a global reach. This paper suggests that many of the current approaches to teaching international public relations have overlooked the realities of the professional world. Thus, although maintaining an intercultural approach is still relevant, a truly effective international public relations education should also incorporate professional concerns related to the study of management and business practices.     

How public relations works: Theoretical roots and public relations perspectives

Public relations is often studied from a managerial, instrumental perspective or a psychological, behavioral perspective. To understand the role of public relations in building trust or mistrust and to develop – or destroy – a license to operate, it needs also to be studied as a social phenomenon.