Reproducing Inequality in Sociology

This essay discusses some mechanisms reproducing inequality in the discipline of sociology. I argue that credit for communally produced ideas accrues to individual and that the discipline is governed by a kind of “racial contract” partially governing which ideas and individuals are included. As a discipline centrally concerned with inequality and stratification, I argue sociologists should employ greater reflexivity when thinking about how disciplinary practices reproduce structures we typically critique in other contexts.     

Beyond the Low-Hanging Fruit: Reducing Racial Inequality by Rethinking School Safety Efforts

In this essay, I examine the problem of excessive and racially disproportionate school discipline. I begin by considering how each of the four most popular Democratic candidates in the presidential primary race as of January 2020 addresses this issue. Excessive and racially disproportionate school discipline harms students, schools, and communities, and it deepens existing racial inequalities. Each candidate promises some remedy, and all represent a step in the right direction. However, all of their proposals are shallow. To fruitfully address these issues, policymakers must consider the cultural embeddedness of school discipline, how it is implemented within complex school bureaucracies, and the underlying racial inequality that shapes school discipline. Policymakers must also draw attention to the fact that schools are, overall, safe and do not require the massive investments in security personnel and technology that draw funds away from more effective supports for students.     

Reflections from the Middle: Making Sense of Elitism in Our Midst

This article sketches a personal story of life at a teaching institution when jobs in sociology were scarce. I examine the concept of elitism and situate it in conditions that shaped the discipline of sociology in the 1970s when a growing number of women entered the field. Throughout my story, I raise the following points: (1) Defining elitism requires comprehending its relativity, (2) Understanding what stands as elitism necessitates examining local and national standards for professional performance, (3) Recognizing that unshared standards or lack of awareness of routine standards leads to charges of elitism, and (4) Acknowledging that the discipline’s class system hardens into a caste system when jobs are tight and thus fuels elitism. I conclude by reflecting on the place of standards in local sociology departments and the larger discipline.     

No Path to Paradise: Deconstructing the Promise of Public Sociology

This essay treats Burawoy’s advocacy for public sociology as a social problems claim. Using a social constructionist approach, I examine the rhetorical strategies Burawoy uses to construct the discipline in a way that makes public sociology seem not only relevant, but integral to what sociologists do. Sociology’s history, ethos and practitioners are framed in ways that make its commitment to the civil sphere appear as a “natural” direction for the discipline. Certain features of the discipline are foregrounded. Motives and desires are imputed. Villains are constructed and the paths to progress are outlined. By examining the framing strategies Burawoy uses to present his vision, the promise of public sociology is called into question. I do not argue that public sociology is without value. Rather, I unpack the claims its advocates make and question whether public sociology can deliver on its promise of a better sociology or a better society.     

Embodiment, experience and theory: in defence of the sociological tradition

This paper examines whether the theoretical analyses and ambitions of sociologists of the body are increasingly making obstructive and irrelevant the subject boundaries and methodological conventions associated with their parent discipline. Concerns about the utility of the discipline have been expressed by a number of body studies emanating from within and outside of sociology. These imply that it is necessary to reject the dominant problematic of sociology and utilise non disciplinary resources if we are to understand issues surrounding the ‘lived experience’ of embodiment. In opposing this rejection of sociology, if not the use of other intellectual resources, I argue that the discipline contains much valuable theorising about experience which has yet to be developed by body theorists. Many of sociology's central concepts, indeed, evoke dimensions of human experience that remain highly pertinent to an understanding of the individual and societal significance of the body in the contemporary era. In order to illustrate this argument, I focus on the writings of Durkheim and Simmel. Their work is rarely central to writings on the body, but provides good examples of the diversity of theoretical approaches within sociology that remain relevant to body theorists. Specifically, I want to use it to develop the outlines of a theory of embodiment as a medium for the constitution of society which has at its centre a concern with human experience. I conclude by reassessing the strategic options sociologists of the body confront in developing their analyses.     

The Study of Culture and Cognition

In this essay, I argue that the Sociology of Culture and Cognition, and indeed, Sociology as a discipline, would do well to join in larger conversations concerning the interconnections of culture, thought, and action. In the pages to follow, I discuss why I make this assertion as well as how such a feat might be accomplished.     

“It’s not rocket science!“: High school sociology teachers’ conceptions of sociology

Since academic sociology’s birth in this country, sociologists have not been shy about publicly praising and ridiculing the discipline. Though sociologists have been the primary participants in the seemingly endless debates about sociology’s proper subject matter, methods, and purpose, there is another group that has also struggled over the past 95 years to formulate a conception of the discipline—high school sociology teachers. At this point, we know virtually nothing about what the thousands of high school teachers who offer sociology each year, actually think about the discipline. This paper uses questionnaire and interview data collected from high school sociology teachers to examine their thoughts on four topics: (1) sociology’s strengths, (2) its weaknesses, (3) whether high school students are capable of understanding the discipline, and (4) appropriate course objectives. The results indicate that high school teachers view sociology quite differently from academic sociologists, and that their conceptions are based primarily on “textbook sociology.” I conclude by discussing the far-reaching implications of teachers’ current thinking about the discipline. I wish to thank Larry nichols for offering helpful comments on an earliar draft of this paper.     

Othering the ‘leaky body’. An autoethnographic story about expressing breast milk in the workplace

In this paper, I present an autoethnographic story about my experiences of expressing breast milk at a Dutch university department. My story illustrates how interrelated and conflicting discourses about gender, motherhood, breastfeeding, embodiment and professionalism raised issues about (in)visibility, embodied control, spatiality and discipline of my body and shaped my experience as a newly maternal employee. This paper thus aims to include bodies and embodied experiences in organization studies and highlights the need to consider spatiality as an important topic of research. I address these issues in my writing and use insights from feminist poststructuralism to show how the experiences I describe are part of a larger cultural framework of power structures that produce the ‘leaky’ maternal body as the Other, subject to (self-)discipline and marginalization. I hope my story inspires reflexivity and empathic understanding of the complex reality of experiences related to expressing breast milk in the workplace.     

The Objects of Sociology: A Response to Breslau's "Sociology After Humanism"

Daniel Breslau's essay opens up a valuable space in seeking to align the sociologically impure objects explored in science studies with the practice of a pure sociology. I challenge Breslau's conclusion that the latter can swallow the former and proceed with business as usual. Contrary to Breslau, I argue that confronting head-on the impure objects of science studies can indeed represent a new beginning in sociology as a discipline. I also correct Breslau's misreading of my work as "symmetrical humanism."     

Girls Just Want to Have Fun (Too): Complicating the Study of Femininity and Women's Leisure

Sociology is the study of society. However, not all aspects of society get the same scholarly attention by academics. Throughout my research program, I have highlighted some of the lesser‐covered areas of society, like feminine leisure seen in activities such as quilting, knitting, and membership in the Red Hat Society. In this article, I discuss how the development of sociology as a discipline has focused on public matters in society like the economy, leaving non‐economic or private activities with less attention. My research on women's feminine leisure from a third‐wave feminism perspective importantly addresses a gap in the discipline.     

North Central Sociological Association 2014 Teaching Address: The John F. Schnabel Lecture—Sociology’s Special Pedagogical Challenge

Instructors and students must overcome a course’s special pedagogical challenge in order for meaningful and important learning to occur. While some suggest that the special pedagogical problem varies by course, I contend that the special pedagogical problem is likely to be shared across a discipline’s curriculum, rather than being unique to each course. After reviewing a three-part typology of learning outcomes for sociology, I argue that the development of students’ sociological imaginations is sociology’s special pedagogical challenge; I then offer some general guidelines for teaching strategies to enhance the students’ success in developing a sociological imagination.     

ECONOMIC REPRESENTATIONS

Diverse representations of the economy exist in both academic and nonacademic, everyday contexts. I show how investigating these representations challenges existing conceptions of both the discipline of economics and “real” economic relations and institutions – such that they can be denaturalized, and new ones can be produced.     

The sociology of organizations and the organization of sociology: some reflections on the making of a division of labour

This paper speculates on the emerging divide between 'organization studies'– a discipline largely practised in management departments – and the 'sociology of organizations'. Using organizational culture as a case study, I argue that 'forgetting' is a key move in the construction of a discipline. Much organization studies' writing on corporate culture and symbolism is predicated on an amnesia about a wide body of older sociological work on 'atmosphere', 'climate', 'personality' and 'informal structure'. This disciplinary constitution is productive of knowing, yet it also involves drawing boundaries that enable forgetting. Critically reflecting on the current division of labour in this area, as well as on the costs of amnesia, might encourage more historically informed forms of knowing.     

Must‐See TV: South Asian Characterizations in American Popular Media

In the 21st century, representations of South Asians in American popular television have increased significantly. However, there has been very little critical analysis on the ways in which these characters are created and produced. In this review, I use literature from the sociology of race/ethnicity, immigration, and critical media studies to identify the concept of “(ethnic) characterization.” While it may be assumed that these representations are created unconsciously, I suggest that media producers intentionally use particular ethnic characteristics that are identified and discussed in contemporary sociological literature. As a result, I argue that these types of media characterizations are relevant to the discipline of sociology.     

The theoretical costs of ignoring childhood: rethinking independence, insecurity, and inequality

Childhood scholars have found that age inequality can be as profound an axis of meaningful difference as race, gender, or class, and yet the impact of this understanding has not permeated the discipline of sociology as a whole. This is one particularly stark example of the central argument of this article: despite decades of empirical and theoretical work by scholars in “the social studies of childhood,” sociologists in general have not incorporated the central contributions of this subfield: that children are active social agents (not passive), knowing actors strategizing within their constraints (not innocent), with their capacities and challenges shaped by their contexts (not universally the same). I contend that mainstream sociology’s relative imperviousness has led to theoretical costs for both childhood scholars—who must re-assert and re-prove the core insights of the field—and sociologists in general. Using three core theoretical debates in the larger discipline—about independence, insecurity, and inequality—I argue that children’s perspectives can help scholars ask new questions, render the invisible visible, and break through theoretical logjams. Thus would further research utilizing children’s perspectives and the dynamics of age extend the explanatory power of social theory.     

FOUCAULDIAN HOG FUTURES:

The development of mega-hog farms is a contentious topic throughout the United States that has garnered a lot of attention in the past five years. This article examines the construction of mega-hog farms in light of Michel Foucault's (1977) analysis in Discipline and Punish . I argue that Foucault provides a good starting point but that to understand current forms of agriculture we must extend his framework to include nonhuman animals as active in discipline and resistance. In order to comprehend how swine farming has shifted from the ancien regime to the disciplinary regime, I provide details on the mutual construction of the swine, the farmer, confinement architecture, and legislation.     

Saving the Savior

This article begins with an autobiographical reflection about what sociology has meant to me as an Iranian intellectual. Sociology has enabled me to think critically about my country's politics and culture, appreciating its strengths without overlooking its unjust and injurious aspects. That experience shapes my answer to the question “Saving Sociology?” If there is anything in sociology that I would like to save–in both senses “to keep” and “to rescue”—it is sociology as a critical, reflective discipline, a discipline that not only studies society but also contributes to its change. As the contemporary world moves toward a “global” society, we are increasingly facing the dilemmas of multiculturalism. Sociologists often investigate other societies or (like myself) look back at their own from a spatial and cultural distance. This situation has created a dilemma for many scholars: Should we criticize problems stemming from “indigenous” beliefs and practices of other societies? Cultural relativism argues that different cultures provide indigenous answers to their social problems that should be judged in their own context. While this approach correctly encourages us to avoid ethnocentrism, it has led to inaction towards the suffering of oppressed groups. Reflecting on the relativist approach to sexual dominance, I question some cultural relativist assumptions. Discussing how “indigenous” responses to male domination in many cases disguise and protect that domination, I will challenge the “localist” approach of relativism and argue for a universalist approach.     

Academic parenthood: Navigating structure and culture in an elite occupation

Many contemporary workers struggle to manage paid work and family responsibilities, leading scholars to explore mechanisms contributing to conflict between these two domains. Such examinations often center on pinpointing specific factors that explain variation in work-family conflict, but these studies have less to say about how some occupational contexts create overwhelming demands for workers. In this article, I advocate for an approach that details the cultural and structural components of specific occupations. Building on scholarship about demanding jobs, I use academic parenthood as an illustrative case to demonstrate how certain occupational contexts are organized in ways that introduce challenges for caregiving. I then analyze how culture and structure jointly influence family-friendly policies in the university setting, along with comparative experiences across discipline, gender, and race/ethnicity. Next, I describe how academic parents in the face of constraints, make choices, show agency, and demonstrate resistance. I conclude by identifying promising areas for future research.     

The Interplay of Psychology and Societal Transformation

This special issue of the International Journal of Group Tensions examines the contribution of psychology to societal transformation worldwide and the impact of societal transformation on psychology. In this introduction, I review the aims and scope of the journal and the focus of the special issue. Second, I identify several key consequences of societal transformation that are not bounded by culture, nationality, or politics, underscoring the psychosocial outcomes. Third, I articulate the role of psychology in societal transformation, highlighting the conceptual, methodological, and practical tools available to describe, study, and effect change. I also address psychosocial explanations of resistance to societal transformation. Fourth, I discuss the impact of societal transformation on psychology as a discipline and profession, noting how such transformation has influenced academic training and professional practice in psychology. I also note how societal transformation has altered public opinion about psychology. I conclude by providing an overview of the articles that comprise the special issue, underscoring their shared themes.     

Critical Perspectives on Crime and Social Harm: Toward a Criminology of Human Rights

Using Sutherland’s conceptualization of white‐collar crime as a significant point of departure, this article explores recent attempts to theorize crime and social harm from a critical criminological perspective. Arguing that the development of this approach is inextricably linked to theoretical and methodological concerns that strike at the very foundation of criminology as a discipline of study, I show how advances in state and corporate crime literature have advanced the field of criminology. Ultimately I argue that contemporary mainstream criminology, which tends to focus solely on the analysis of traditional ‘street’ crime, has failed to bring within its criminological purview those actions which have the greatest potential for causing significant human suffering.