Disciplines of Organizational Learning: Contributions and Critiques

The paper argues against attempts to create asingle framework for understanding organizationallearning. Relevant literature is reviewed from sixdisciplinary perspectives: psychology and OD; management science; sociology and organizational theory;strategy; production management; and culturalanthropology. It is argued that each discipline providesdistinct contributions and conceptions of problems.Furthermore, a basic distinction between organizationallearning and the new idea of the learning organizationis noted. Whereas the former is discipline based andanalytic,the latter is multidisciplinary and emphasizes action and the creation of anideal-type of organization. Due to thediversity of purpose and perspective, it is suggestedthat it is better to consider organizational learning asa multidisciplinary field containing complementary contributions andresearch agendas.     

Cognitive Style and the Theory and Practice of Individual and Collective Learning in Organizations

This paper reviews aspects of two largelydisparate literatures from the adjacent fields ofindividual and organizational learning and identifiessome implications for theory and practice. The focus of attention is the extent to which the individuallevel construct cognitive style can be meaningfullyapplied to aid the understanding of learning at thelevel of the organization as well as at the level of the individual. Attention is given to theways in which consideration of cognitive style canimprove the effectiveness of interventions designed toimprove individual and organizational performance. Nine categories of intervention areidentified.     

Bringing Business into Sociotechnical Theory and Practice

Current developments in the sociotechnical framework address a number of vital issues that failed to occupy the high ground in its formative years. These include: (i) the purpose of the systems, to create customer value under social and resource constraints, (ii) the context or external business environment, and (iii) the dynamics of the sociotechnical system. Due attention to the dominant issues of purpose, context, and their dynamics make it more meaningful to speak of sociotechnical business systems (STBS) and organizational learning instead of sociotechnical systems (STS) and individual learning. In STBS each unit in an organization has business responsibilities and goal-based couplings with its environment and focuses on the creation of customer value. The implications of this shift from STS to STBS are discussed and illustrated with current research and two summary case studies.     

From Altruism to Action: Primary Task and the Not-for-Profit Organization

This paper examines the concept of primary task,as it has been used in action research and consultancyat The Tavistock Institute and elsewhere. It applies theconcept to the not-for-profit organization and argues that primary task should not bethought of opportunistically; it relates to themission of the organization. The threesector model of public, private and voluntaryorganizations is linked to basic assumptions, as described by Bion andapplied to societal institutions. The voluntary sectoris considered to have a valency for basic assumptionpairing organizational behavior. A case study of a voluntary organization demonstrates the waydifferent stakeholders claim psychological ownership ofthe enterprise. The paper concludes that the concept ofprimary task remains important, offering a stable reference point for working with organizations,where the boundary between sectors is increasinglyproblematic, threatening to overwhelm their originalpurpose.     

Social Defenses Against Organizational Learning

It is argued that for organizational learning to occur maladaptive social defenses within the organization have to be altered. The origins of the concept of social defenses are traced through the work of Jaques and Menzies. A new concept of system domain, and related concepts of system domain fabric, and system domain defenses, are proposed in order to account for the difficulties in sustaining organizational change in organizations that share a similar primary task. Organizational learning is defined as occurring when there is co-evolution of organizational container and contained. The article distills variables from three successful consultancy/action research projects which are characteristic of organizations that are learning, and it is hypothesized that the creation of organizational awareness is necessary for organizational learning to occur.     

Predicting Intentions to Report Administrative and Disciplinary Infractions: Applying the Reasoned Action Model

The present study focuses on the reporting ofadministrative and disciplinary irregularities. Thereasoned action model (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) isapplied to predict officers' intentions to report illegal or irregular activities in the IsraeliDefense Forces. The findings show that although themodel's two predictors (attitude toward reporting andsubjective norm) significantly predicted intention to report, the effect of subjective norm wasmuch stronger than the effect of the attitude component.In spite of the military's strong formal system andalthough social forces have great potential to impose the reporting norm on an organization'smembers, actual reporting does not meet expectations.The results are discussed in light of the organizationalculture that develops as the combat unit struggles to survive in an extremely turbulentenvironment.     

Gender Relations and Identity at Work: A Case Study of Masculinities and Femininities in an Advertising Agency

The paper explores gender relations and genderidentity, based upon an ethnography of a Swedishadvertising agency. The organization is of specialinterest as it has a strong gender division of labor,where men hold all senior posts, at the same time ascreative advertising work seems to have much moresimilarity with what gender studies describe as"femininity" rather than with forms ofmasculinity. The paper discusses how gender is constructedin an organizational context. Emphasis on workplacesexuality is related to identity work of men in responseto the highly ambiguous and contested context of advertising work. Tendencies toward thefemininization of the work and clientrelationships put some strain on (gender) identity formen, triggering a structuring of gender relations andinteraction at the workplace to restore feelings ofmasculinity. The paper problematizes ideas ofmasculinities and femininities and argues for arethinking of their roles in nonbureaucraticorganizations. Also assumptions about a close connection between domination ofmasculinity and of males are criticallydiscussed.     

The implementation of motor learning principles in designing prevention programs at work

Occupational therapy practitioners offer services to workers in the workplace to prevent musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs), to help the injured worker restore function, and to recover capacities needed to return to the job. Despite the existence of some evidence about the efficacy of prevention programs, there is uncertainty and even disagreement among health professionals, about the outcome of prevention programs for people with MSDs. It is proposed that principles of motor learning can assist the therapist in structuring prevention programs to facilitate the workers learning of correct movement patterns. This paper discusses basic concepts of motor learning emphasizing characteristics of the learner, the type of task, the structure of practice and application to prevention programs at work settings. We present a four-stage model for prevention programs based on principles of both motor learning and ergonomics. This model coincides with the broad perspective suggested in current occupational therapy models which focuses on the person, the environment, the occupation and their effects on occupational performance.     

The Leveraging Effect of Supervisory Competencies Towards the Performance in Indian Manufacturing Group: A Structural Equation Modelling Approach

The quick pace of technological changes, market and industry changes, demographic composition change and society changes requires that human resource managers should revitalize their proficiencies to go with these new challenges. The manager who is a liaison in the organizational hierarchy does a very important job in the organization to direct and channel the employee cluster towards its organization goal, and ensure that each member of the team should be dynamic and prolific. The study on supervisory competency analysis is a crucial and fundamental requirement for any organization. The current study ‘The leveraging effect of Supervisory competencies towards the performance in Indian manufacturing group’ is based on primary data collected from one hundred and fifty employees working in a paper manufacturing industry. The data collected were analysed using SPSS and SMART PLS software. The results of the study revealed that the impact of supervisory competencies towards his performance is huge which accounts to 81% (R²?=?0.810) and towards the growth of whole organization is 35% (R²?=?0.356). This implies that if the supervisory level employees are competent enough by possessing certain competencies, his individual performance will do extreme wonders and will create a strong bond between him and the organization and also create an impact on organization growth by clear strategy formulation, creating committed workforce, developing the organization as learning organization and stimulating individual and group productivity.     

Does it make a difference? Evaluation of a Canadian poverty reduction initiative

Program evaluation is an important aspect of any organization. The ability to reflect on past performance and plan for the future is essential to an organization’s health and future growth. This exploratory study is part of a larger program evaluation initiative that examined the efficacy of a regionally based organization that provided funding to community groups to alleviate poverty. The purpose of the study was to explore testimonials provided by participants of the organization’s funded programs, to determine if the participants were satisfied with the programs and the extent to which participants’ perceptions are congruent with the goals of the organization. Content analysis was used to examine 3494 testimonials from 77 different agencies. Three overall themes were determined from the analysis: 1 Developing Social Networks, 2 Learning Comes in Various Forms, and 3 Developing Self-Efficacy. Findings from the testimonials suggest that the benefits of the programs are highly social and that connections with others are important, but also provide rich opportunities for learning new skills and knowledge, as well as gaining confidence and a sense of control. The findings from this analysis support one goal of the organization which is to engage people living in poverty in meaningful ways.     

Organizations and Learning: A Critical Appraisal

Discussions about organizations and learning continue to attract critical interest. Since the emergence in the 1970s of the notion of the “learning organization,” notions of systems’ learning, knowledge management and lifelong learning have progressively entered into the debates. Earlier debates, which drew on education and psychology fields as well as organization and management studies, frequently explored plural objectives for learning occurring within organizational and workplace arenas. They included emphasis on workers’ as well as managerial interests in various forms and objectives of learning. Latter debates on organizational learning appear predominantly shaped by a distinctive economic rationality and management interest. This article, from a sociological vantage point, reviews key thematic issues and critically explores some current questions in regard to organizations and learning. It proposes that a prevailing economic model in accordance with generalized policy objectives evident across the advanced economies for a neo‐liberalized “knowledge‐based economy” and “learning society” poses a particular set of contemporary issues and problems. The current juncture may, however, stimulate further innovation in models of learning organizations that widen agenda and prospects for learning.     

How do study satisfaction and academic performance interrelate? An investigation with students of Social Work programs

An investigation of study satisfaction and academic performance in the study of Social Work is reported (N=514). The results show that satisfaction (a scale based on 13 items) and performance (undergraduate course marks) hardly correlate with each other (r=?0.05) and are influenced by different variables. Whereas study satisfaction is determined by ‘noncognitive’ factors such as motivation and course organization, academic performance is influenced by ‘cognitive' factors such as final school grade and students' learning behavior. Satisfied and/or successful students are more motivated to complete their course of study within the regular period and to work later as social workers. Vocational training or a university degree before studying Social Work does not affect satisfaction or performance. The findings are discussed in relation to optimal study management and selection criteria.     

Rethinking Parental Coping with Child Health: A Proposed Theoretical Model

Much of the stress and coping literature is shaped by Hill’s ABC-X model, however, parents who are learning to cope with various aspects of their child’s health may experience stressors that can be better explained by expanding the ABC-X model to incorporate specific needs of the family. To aid this expansion, the authors examine the specific context of children with chronic illnesses via a systematic review and propose a new theoretical model: the Model of Parental Coping with Child Health. The proposed model explores the integration of the biopsychosocial-spiritual model and ecological systems theory utilizing the scaffolding of the ABC-X model for the organization. Future research, implications, and recommendations are also discussed.     

Gambling Behaviour in Adolescents with Learning Disorders

The present study examined the prevalence of disordered gambling behaviours in a community-based sample of adolescents (N = 532) living in eastern central Ontario. Of particular interest was examining the hypothesis that adolescents with learning disorders are at elevated risk for disordered gambling. Rates of disordered gambling in male adolescents with learning disorders were found to be significantly higher than adolescents without learning problems, even after controlling for negative affectivity and ADHD symptomatology. The implications for treatment and intervention of gambling problems in adolescence are discussed.     

Abjection and Organization: Men, Violence, and Management

This paper explores case material to show theextent to which non-organizational experiences ofviolence can shape subsequent behavior withinorganizations. These connections are not commonlyconsidered either in the study of organizational behavioror of managerial practice, because behaviors from otherarenas, adaptations, and responses, can be reproducedmany years away from the source of anxiety. These behaviors are widespread, patterned, cyclical,and carry an inevitability about them that cannot bemodified simply by changing behavior alone. The paperconcentrates on examples where the extent ofpathological behavior is easilyseen, but the processes whichsurface are common mechanisms of ordinary human behaviorand more attenuated experiences of violence withinorganizations operate similarly. These processes are discussed through the work of objectrelations theorists, Julia Kristeva, and recenttheorists of masculinity, arguing that bureaucraciesseek to deny the emotional dimension of their behaviorand decision-making which creates emotion as an abject phenomenon,denied but present, ever potentially resurgent, neveraddressed as reality. Men are caught up in this web ofsocietal and organizational denial because of their traditional dominance in formalorganizations and the historical association ofmasculinity and rationality, compounded by the dynamicsof male psychology. However traditional symbolicassociations between men and physical violence introduce aproblematic contradiction, and societal, cultural, andorganizational arrangements tend to support andfacilitate the psychodynamics of denial which deals with this contradiction by producing narcissisticand addictive responses. This is illustrated by adiscussion of film, novel, and biographical data. Thepaper finally argues that men in organizations need to come to terms with the unacceptable inthemselves and their experience in order to break thiscycle of reproduction of dysfunctionalbehavior.     

Emotional Aspects of Large Group Teaching

With the growth of mass education in the U.K.has come the seemingly inevitable growth of large groupteaching. Many technical solutions to theproblems of large group teaching have been proposed (e.g., use of microphones, structured handouts,buzz groups, etc.) but we contend that emotional aspectshave been largely neglected and ignored. We argue thatit is legitimate to consider the role of emotion in higher education, and its particular effectsin large teaching groups. While it is, perhaps, easierand safer to pretend that all is well, there are clearemotional consequences to working in these large groups for both students and lecturers. Forinstance, students may experience powerful feelings ofalienation, anger, and envy in large groups andcompensate in various ways, some of which will beantithetical to achieving effective learning and astimulating educational experience. Similarly, lecturerscan also seek to cope with their own feelings of fearand uncertainty by behaving equally maladaptively. We examine the contribution psychodynamic thinkingcan make to our understanding of large teaching groupsand contrast this with the consequences of adhering tosimplistic technical models. We argue for the legitimacy of the role of emotion in highereducation and seek to encourage a debate on this issuewhich will include appropriate research into the effectsof trying to teach and learn in large groups. This paper thus seeks to raise issues andencourage debate in this relatively unresearched area.Further, we contend that it is important and necessaryto conduct appropriate research into the emotional effects of such groups on both teaching andlearning.     

Creating Continuous Conversation: Social Workers and Learning Organizations

This article presents some findings on one aspect of a qualitative study of the continuing education of social workers in New Zealand. Social workers interviewed were aware of the contemporary discourses of lifelong learning and in particular, the concept of learning organizations. Analysis reveals that while practitioners are positive about the ideals of the learning organization; this is tempered by practical considerations and constraints which reflect the critique of the learning organization found in the literature. When asked to define their hopes for post‐qualifying learning, participants identified intellectual refreshment, critical reflection and acknowledging successful work as priorities. Social workers clearly want ‘learning workplaces’ and as educators we need to support their development. Top‐down models may not provide the answer and small‐scale local initiatives which engender critical, reflective and inquiring ‘continuous conversations’ may serve practitioners better.