SELF-INTEREST AND PUBLIC OPINION TOWARD SMOKING RESTRICTIONS AND CIGARETTE TAXES

A burgeoning literature suggests that self-interest has littleinfluence on policy preferences. In sharp contrast are the findingsdiscussed in this paper: we show that self-interest plays adecisive role in shaping attitudes toward smoking restrictionsand cigarette taxes. Data from two random samples of Californiaadults collected by the Field Institute in April 1987 and February1984 indicate that nonsmokers are far more enthusiastic abouttightening smoking restrictions and increasing cigarette taxesthan smokers, particularly heavy smokers. We conclude by discussingseveral explanations for the apparent discrepancy between theseresults and the pattern of null findings characteristic of theself-interest literature.     

DO HIGHER TOBACCO TAXES REDUCE ADULT SMOKING? NEW EVIDENCE OF THE EFFECT OF RECENT CIGARETTE TAX INCREASES ON ADULT SMOKING

There is a general consensus among policymakers that raising tobacco taxes reduces cigarette consumption. However, evidence that tobacco taxes reduce adult smoking is relatively sparse. In this paper, we extend the literature in two ways: using data from the Current Population Survey Tobacco Use Supplements we focus on recent, large tax changes, which provide the best opportunity to empirically observe a response in cigarette consumption, and employ a novel paired difference‐in‐differences technique to estimate the association between tax increases and cigarette consumption. Estimates indicate that, for adults, the association between cigarette taxes and either smoking participation or smoking intensity is negative, small, and not usually statistically significant. Our evidence suggests that increases in cigarette taxes are associated with small decreases in cigarette consumption and that it will take sizable tax increases, on the order of 100%, to decrease smoking by as much as 5%. (JEL I18, I12)     

Impact of smoke-free residence hall policies: the views of administrators at 3 state universities

Nationwide efforts to protect the public against the health effects of secondhand smoke have prompted college and university administrators to adopt more restrictive smoking policies. Some campus officials are concerned that new policies will lead to student backlash, increased staff workloads, and an increased economic burden. To understand the impact of smoke-free residence hall policies, we conducted key informant interviews and gathered archival data at 3 large state universities. The implementation of smoke-free residence hall policies imposed little economic burden. We noted positive impacts in several key areas, including decreased damage to residence hall buildings, increased student retention, and improved enforcement of marijuana policies. Increased costs, such as the purchase of outdoor cigarette receptacles, were outweighed by the benefits. Findings from this study should encourage college and university administrators to enact smoke-free residence hall policies.     

DO CIGARETTE EXCISE TAX RATES MAXIMIZE REVENUE?

Buchanan and Lee [1982] suggest that politicians choose tax rates on the positively sloped segment of the short-run rate-revenue curve but the negatively sloped segment of the long-run curve. This paper uses recent estimates of the slope of the cigarette demand curve by Becker, Grossman and Murphy [1994] to test the hypothesis. Becker, Grossman and Murphy's parameter estimates combined with state-by-state data on key variables yields strong evidence against the hypothesis and instead suggests that marginal revenues from cigarette excise taxes are positive in every state.     

Predictors of misreporting cigarette smoking initiation among adolescents

This study examines the prevalence of invalid reports of cigarette smoking initiation among adolescents (i.e., reporting cigarette smoking at one time point and denying ever trying cigarettes at a subsequent time point) and the association of misreports with scores on other problem-prone variables. Misreports did not vary as a function of item complexity and did not reflect careless responding. In the seventh grade, misreporters' scores on the problem-prone variables were higher than those of nonsmokers and lower than those of smokers. In contrast, when measured in the eighth grade, misreporters' scores did not differ from those of nonsmokers. Misreporters did show a greater decrease in intentions to smoke, alcohol use, and number of friends who smoke compared to nonsmokers and consistent smokers. Explanations for these findings are discussed.     

CIGARETTE TAXES AND ILLICIT TRADE IN EUROPE

Cigarettes are highly taxed in Europe, but at higher prices some consumers substitute more toward illicit cigarettes. The illicit retail trade in cigarettes (IRTC) includes counterfeit, untaxed, and smuggled cigarettes. Some existing literature includes claims that taxes are not an important determinant of IRTC. Using data from the European Union, we find the opposite: raising prices leads to substantial increases in IRTC. A €1 increase in tax/pack is expected to increase illicit market share by 5 to 12 percentage points and increase illicit cigarette sales by 29% to 95%. The results are robust to alternative specifications and data. (JEL I18, H26, K42)     

The spatial distribution of smoking violations on a no-smoking campus: Implications for prevention

ABSTRACT

Objective: The present study extends research on campus smoking bans by examining where smokers are violating the policy at a large university in the southeastern region of the United States. Participants: The data collection was conducted by one graduate student from the university in August of 2014. Methods: A global positioning system device was used to collect the geo-coordinates of littered cigarette butts as a proxy measure for smoking violations. Results: A hot spot analysis found a number of spatial concentrations on campus, largely around classroom and administrative buildings along with parking lots and garages. Conclusions: The implications of such findings can direct enforcement to target these areas in order to reduce offenses and fulfill the initial goals of policy-makers and university administrators who support smoke-free campuses.     

The influence of parental separation on smoking initiation in adolescents

Most adult smokers start smoking when they are adolescents and, the prevalence of smoking declines less than other unhealthy behaviors as people mature. Understanding why adolescents start smoking is, therefore, key to developing effective policy aimed at lowering the prevalence of smoking in both children and adults. In this study, I suggest that parental separation is one possible risk factor for smoking initiation. I use a nationally representative sample of American adolescents interviewed at two points in time to examine the influence of parental separation on smoking initiation. Two questions are addressed. First, is there a relationship between parental separation and the likelihood that an adolescent will initiate smoking? Second, if there is a relationship, through what factors does parental separation operate to influence the initiation of smoking in adolescents? My findings suggest that parental separation increases the likelihood that adolescents will start smoking. It does so in part by raising depressive symptoms and rebelliousness in adolescents. Despite the significance of these indirect effects, however, the bulk of the effect of parental separation on smoking initiation is direct.     

COMBAT EXPOSURE,CIGARETTE CONSUMPTION,AND SUBSTANCE USE

This study estimates the relationship between combat exposure and several risky health behaviors: cigarette consumption, binge drinking, and drug use. We find that the U.S. active duty military personnel deployed to combat zones with enemy firefight are more likely to subsequently smoke cigarettes, consume alcohol, and use illicit drugs than their counterparts deployed to noncombat operations. Our results suggest that the mental health effects of combat can explain up to two‐thirds of the estimated association between combat exposure and risky health behaviors. (JEL H56, I12)     

Adolescents’ Responses to Cigarette Advertisements for Five “Youth Brands” and One “Adult Brand”

Almost all smoking initiation takes place during adolescence, and the appeal of cigarette advertising is frequently proposed as one of the reasons adolescents begin smoking, but few studies have investigated adolescents’ responses to cigarette ads. This study examined responses to cigarette advertisements among 400 adolescents ages 12 to 17 years in Arizona and Washington, who were surveyed in shopping malls. Adolescents were presented with two ads for each of five youth brands (Marlboro^TM, Newport^TM, Camel^TM, Kool^TM, and Winston^TM) and one ad for an adult brand (Merit^TM), and were asked how often they had seen the ad, how much they liked the ad, and whether or not the ad made smoking more appealing. A substantial proportion of adolescents, especially smokers, liked the ads for the youth brands and believed the ads made smoking more appealing. The ads for Marlboro and the new Camel and Winston ads were especially attractive to adolescents. In contrast, few adolescents liked the ad for the adult brand and few believed that it made smoking more appealing.     

Depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking in a college sample

OBJECTIVE AND PARTICIPANTS: The authors examined (1) the relationship between depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking in a college sample and (2) the role of smoking self-efficacy (one's perceived ability to abstain from smoking) in explaining the relationship between depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking. METHODS: Predominantly first-year college students at a large public university completed a self-report inventory indexing depressive symptoms, cigarette smoking, and smoking self-efficacy. RESULTS: Findings indicated that students high in depressive symptoms smoked significantly more cigarettes per day than did those with low depressive symptoms. Further, among current smokers, smoking self-efficacy explained the relationship between depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking. CONCLUSIONS: These findings add to accumulating evidence that depressive symptoms are a risk factor for increased cigarette smoking in college students. The authors discuss implications for university-based smoking cessation and prevention programs.     

Styles of Physician Advice About Smoking Cessation in College Students

Abstract

Objective: To examine whether young adult cigarette smokers who were in the precontemplation and contemplation stages of change for smoking cessation would differ in their evaluations of vignettes depicting 2 types of physician advice. Participants: Fifty-seven young adult cigarette smokers who were undergraduate students (49.1% female, mean age = 20.4 years) attending an urban university. Methods: Participants evaluated 2 written vignettes. Both vignettes depicted physicians using patient-centered communication styles. One vignette depicted a physician giving a patient direct advice to quit smoking and the other a physician using a motivational style of advice. Data were collected from September 2004 through May 2005. Results: Participants rated the motivational advice vignette as significantly more favorable compared to the direct advice vignette on all assessed dimensions (global satisfaction, general satisfaction, physician affective style, physician technical style, and physician communication style). Conclusion: Smokers preferred the motivational advice style to simple patent-centered advice.     

Global Patterns and Determinants of Sex Differences in Smoking

The worldwide spread of tobacco use in recent decades raises questions about the relative prevalence of smoking among men and women. Does the degree of gender equality in nations promote equality in cigarette use? Does rising use of cigarettes by women stem from the stage of cigarette diffusion and earlier increases among men? Or have changes in economic factors and smoking policy affected the sexes differently? This study uses aggregate data for 106 nations, measures of smoking prevalence circa 2000, and lagged measures of gender equality, cigarette diffusion, and tobacco access to address these questions and evaluate the underlying theories. With the logged ratio of female to male prevalence as the dependent variable, regression results reveal that gender equality has inconsistent effects on women's smoking relative to men, cigarette diffusion has more consistent and moderately strong effects, and economic factors have weak effects. Global patterns of adoption of cigarettes by women appear most closely associated with the early adoption by men and then movement through a regular pattern of cigarette diffusion.     

An E-mail assessment of undergraduates' attitudes toward smoking.

Responses from 513 of 1,000 randomly selected undergraduate students who were sent an e-mail questionnaire, about cigarette smoking were analyzed. Thirteen percent of the respondents identified themselves as smokers. No statistically significant differences were observed between smokers and nonsmokers and year in college, sex, age, race, or having attended public or private high schools. Ninety-eight percent of the respondents considered themselves knowledgeable about adverse health consequences of smoking, yet 39.1% of current smokers seriously considered stopping smoking, and 11.5% of current nonsmokers intended to start smoking. The preferred quitting method of smokers and ex-smokers was stopping all at once ("cold turkey"). Fifty-two percent of the smokers did not want professional assistance to stop smoking; 40% of the nonsmokers wanted information on second-hand smoke.     

A SILVER LINING? THE CONNECTION BETWEEN GASOLINE PRICES AND OBESITY

I find evidence of a negative association between gasoline prices and body weight using a fixed effects model with several robustness checks. I also show that increases in gas prices are associated with additional walking and a reduction in the frequency with which people eat at restaurants, explaining their effect on weight. My estimates imply that 8% of the rise in obesity between 1979 and 2004 can be attributed to the concurrent drop in real gas prices, and that a permanent $1 increase in gasoline prices would reduce overweight and obesity in the United States by 7% and 10%.     

Smoking initiation and smoking patterns among US college students.

The ages at which 18- to 24-year-old college students started smoking and its relationship to subsequent smoking were explored, using data from the 1995 National College Health Risk Behavior Survey. Most students (70%) had tried smoking; among those who had tried, 42% were current smokers, 19% were current frequent smokers, and 13% were current daily smokers. The majority (81%) who had ever smoked daily began doing so at age 18 years or younger, and 19% began smoking daily at age 19 years or older. Women were as likely as men to report ever having smoked a whole cigarette or ever having smoked daily. Most students (82%) who had ever smoked daily had tried to quit, but 3 in 4 were still smokers. Policies and programs designed to prevent the initiation of smoking and to help smokers quit are needed at both the high school and the college levels to reduce the proportion of young adults who smoke cigarettes.     

The Relationship of Smoking Status to Alcohol Use,Problems, and Health Behaviors in College Freshmen

Differences in drinking, consequences, and perceptions were examined between alcohol‐using college students by smoking status (current, past, and lifetime nonsmoker). Entering freshmen (N = 558: 45% male, 72% Caucasian, age M = 18) completed a questionnaire assessing smoking, drinking and current health perceptions. Results indicated current smokers drank more frequently, were more likely to drink to intoxication, and had more physiological consequences (e.g., blackouts, coordination problems) than past or lifetime nonsmokers, but past smokers also reported riskier drinking than lifetime nonsmokers. Despite a higher prevalence of alcohol‐related health problems in both current and past smokers, no current health differences were found. Results replicate findings that current smokers are at increased risk for problematic drinking and identify past smokers as another risk group.     

A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Acceptability and Effectiveness of University Smoke-Free Policies

Abstract

Objective: Systematically review studies of support for, and effectiveness of, university campuses’ smoke-free policies. Participants/Methods: A search was carried out for studies in English related to campus smoking bans through June 2013. Eligible studies had outcomes for student or faculty attitudes, or measures of smoking prevalence or secondhand smoke (SHS) exposure. Results: Nineteen eligible studies were identified, 18 from the United States and 1 from the United Kingdom. A meta-analysis found 58.94% (95% confidence interval [CI] [52.35%, 65.53%]) of students (12 studies) and 68.39% (95% CI [65.12%, 71.67%]) of faculty (7 studies) supported smoke-free policies. Both studies measuring student smoking prevalence indicated a postban reduction (16.5% to 12.8% after 1 year [p < .001] and 9.5% to 7.0% [p = .036] after 3 years). Only 5% of UK universities were smoke-free compared with 25% of US universities. Conclusions: A majority of students and faculty support smoke-free campus policies, which may reduce smoking and SHS exposure.     

Depressive Symptoms and Cigarette Smoking in a College Sample

Objective and Participants: The authors examined (1) the relationship between depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking in a college sample and (2) the role of smoking self-efficacy (one's perceived ability to abstain from smoking) in explaining the relationship between depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking. Methods: Predominantly first-year college students at a large public university completed a self-report inventory indexing depressive symptoms, cigarette smoking, and smoking self-efficacy. Results: Findings indicated that students high in depressive symptoms smoked significantly more cigarettes per day than did those with low depressive symptoms. Further, among current smokers, smoking self-efficacy explained the relationship between depressive symptoms and cigarette smoking. Conclusions: These findings add to accumulating evidence that depressive symptoms are a risk factor for increased cigarette smoking in college students. The authors discuss implications for university-based smoking cessation and prevention programs.     

PRICES,INFLATION, AND SMOKING ONSET: THE CASE OF ARGENTINA

This article examines the effect of tobacco prices on the decision to start smoking in Argentina. Argentina is an interesting case to explore given its high smoking rates, its recent experience with periods of very high and hyperinflation, and the mixed evidence of the effect of prices on smoking onset, particularly in low‐ and middle‐income countries. We used data from four cycles of two large national surveys conducted between 2005 and 2011 and discrete‐time hazard models. We found that tobacco prices had a statistically significant and fairly large impact on the hazard of smoking onset, and these findings were robust to alternative specifications. We also found that prices had little effect on the hazards of smoking onset during periods of hyper‐ and very high inflation, which provide some support for the notion that prices lose their informational role in such periods. Governments need to be cognizant that their most important policy tool to reduce tobacco use—taxes that increase real tobacco prices—is likely no longer effective during these times. (JEL C41, H20, I12, I18)