常规时期生育率失真问题及调整方法的新进展

Bongaarts和Feeney提出的去进度效应总和生育率引起了学术界广泛争议、讨论和各种新的尝试。文章梳理了这一研究上的理论争论,简要介绍在此方法方面的重要进展。十年来,去进度效应方法的应用已经从总和生育率扩展到平均预期寿命以及时期婚姻指标。文章还简要介绍了Yamaguchi和Beppu在改进去进度效应生育指标时的重要发现及其研究思路的创新。特别介绍了Bongaarts和Sobotka的最新研究成果,他们新提出了TFRp*指标,用以分析欧洲国家近年生育率的回升,发现TFR回升的主要原因是时期效应的减少和消失,而时期生育的数量水平其实相当平稳。在此就时期调整指标方面研究的进展做些评论,并讨论需要进一步思考的问题。     

浅析中国1991～2000年生育模式变化对生育水平的影响

分析生育模式的变化对生育水平的影响 ,通过计算 1 991～ 2 0 0 0年中国去进度效应总和生育率TFR’ ,清楚地看出 ,提高初婚年龄和拉大一孩至二孩生育间隔所造成的生育模式的变化导致中国 1 0年间TFR偏低。去进度效应总和生育率TFR’较之TFR更加接近中国妇女的实际终身生育水平     

我国妇女生育推迟与近期生育水平变化

随着我国时期生育水平的下降,我国妇女的平均生育年龄自20世纪90年代以来呈现上升的趋势。在这样的情况下,传统的时期总和生育率的估计受到进度效应的影响,人们从这一指标中难以对我国近期生育水平的变化形成正确的认识。本文利用多来源可靠数据,对我国近期的总和生育率以及去进度效应总和生育率进行了估计,发现去除进度效应影响后,生育水平的时期估计值有了大幅度上升,2007²012年的生育水平大约在1.7至1.8之间。研究进一步重构了19642012年的生育水平大约在1.7至1.8之间。研究进一步重构了1964¹985年出生队列的部分年龄别生育率,发现年轻队列的峰值年龄别生育率较低,但在较高年龄时会出现年龄别生育率相较之前队列升高的现象。文章进一步探讨了我国生育政策对于妇女生育行为的影响以及政策变动可能带来的时期生育率的变化。     

时期生育水平指标的回顾与分析

本文应用TFR′指标与TFR指标比较 ,在中国历年生育数据和计划生育文献回顾的基础上对以往的生育史和计划生育史联系起来进行分析。结果反映出 :70年代的计划生育使时期TFR持续大幅度下降 ,但逐步积累了很大的由生育推迟所形成的生育势能。 80年代初TFR上升的主要原因是 70年代积累的生育势能的释放 ,而由新婚姻法公布所产生部分早婚早育只是次要原因。80年代尽管存在多次生育政策变化 ,计划生育并没有出现大的失控。其间的TFR波动与政策多变和工作状况不稳定有关。 90年代开始新一轮TFR持续下降 ,但同时也在积累新的生育势能。这一分析量化地揭示了常规TFR的一些缺陷 ,TFR′指标则能够较好地提供生育变化趋势的信息 ,而两者的比较则有助于更好地理解当前的生育状况     

对去进度效应总和生育率的检验与讨论

去进度效应总和生育率指标是由人口学家Bongaarts和Feeney于1998年建立的,它是基于总和生育率容易受到平均生育年龄影响的缺点而提出的,希望它能够剔除进度效应,同时,也是为了更好地反映终身生育率方面的相关信息。然而这一调整指标的设计与计算是否合理、准确呢?这里从该指标计算的前提条件、数据基础和计算方法三个方面进行了相关的讨论,并利用中国近年来的实际数据进行了必要的检验。结果表明:该指标核心调整公式的前提假设在现实中难以满足,指标对于平均生育年龄变化的敏感度高,而平均生育年龄的测量与计算方法使得计算结果产生的误差较大,导致调整指标出现错误的几率增高。对于总和生育率易受平均生育年龄影响的问题我们还需进一步的思考和解决。     

论内在总和生育率

在不断完善对时期生育率的测量指标中,人口学家们提出了各种基于对生育行为各个方面进行控制的生育率指标,以便获得更为准确的生育水平度量。对生育率的数量成分和进度成分的分解,使得我们对时期生育率的变化有了更深入的认识。针对递进生育率和去进度效应总和生育率的缺陷,澳大利亚学者提出了内在总和生育率的指标,并通过实证研究表明它能更准确测量生育率的数量效应和进度效应。内在总和生育率是对生育的年龄、胎次和间隔同时进行控制的生育率指标,反映的是生育行为内在稳定的生育水平。本文对这一方法进行介绍,并利用我国1988年2‰人口生育率抽样调查数据,说明该指标的构建和计算过程。     

孩次递进比的计算与调整生育指标的理解

文章就姜全保的商榷订正了根据普查数据计算年龄别孩次递进比公式,并进一步探讨了生育递进指标与去进度效应总和生育率指标的应用。     

中国女性未婚生育现状及其婚姻进度效应

未婚生育状况及其婚姻进度效应是了解第二次人口转变的重要观察点，对于理解中国婚育转变和制定相关政策具有重要意义。但是当前国内研究主要将生育置于婚内讨论，鲜有关注婚前生育。文章基于2017年全国生育状况抽样调查数据分析中国1980年以后出生女性的未婚生育现状，利用事件史分析方法和倾向值匹配方法考察未婚生育对女性进入初婚的影响。结果表明约6.5%的女性曾经历未婚生育事件，其中超过九成的未婚初育是计划内怀孕的结果，随着出生队列推移，未婚生育女性的比例呈现先升后降的趋势。婚姻登记制度对婚龄的限制、传统事实婚姻惯习、计划生育对男孩偏好和多孩偏好的强化等因素在一定程度上造成了中国女性的未婚生育。从婚姻进度效应来看，未婚生育对女性初婚主要呈现出促进效应，且这种婚姻促进效应随着出生队列的推移有所增强。婚姻登记制度、相关落户制度等社会制度因素与子女中心主义、合法性诉求等个体观念因素的共同作用带来了未婚生育的婚姻促进效应。中国第二次人口转变在未婚生育领域表现出与西方国家不同的发展轨迹，传统观念和行为与现代化建设之间的冲突、错位与磨合是引发中国未婚生育及其婚姻促进效应的主要动力。在中国，生育和婚姻尚未出现“脱...     

中国分性别婚姻推迟及其补偿研究北大核心

自20世纪80年代中后期以来我国人口出现了明显的婚姻推迟现象。婚姻推迟与补偿问题不仅关系婚姻家庭本身,而且与生育水平紧密相关,因而受到广泛关注。然而,以往相关研究存在以下不足:第一,对于婚姻推迟仅仅是人口步入婚姻的“进度”上的减慢,还是随着结婚年龄的推迟最终导致相当比例的人终身不婚这一问题,现有研究持不同观点,需要进一步检验。第二,以往相关研究多关于女性,但在中国婚姻挤压非常严重的人口结构背景下,分析比较两性婚姻推迟与补偿的特点更具有意义。第三,以往研究在方法上多使用净婚姻表分析其主要指标,但净婚姻表因纳入了死亡因素反而不能反映婚姻的“净变化”。鉴于此,文章利用我国最新普查数据,采用粗婚姻表以及婚姻补偿指数等多个统计指标,从队列和时期视角探讨近30年来中国婚姻推迟趋势及其补偿效应,特别关注在婚姻挤压背景下婚姻推迟与补偿的性别差异。研究结果表明:中国人口的婚姻推迟程度不断加深,近20年男性婚姻推迟程度高于女性;男女婚姻推迟的补偿效应不断减弱,且男性婚姻推迟的补偿效应低于女性。根据男女婚姻推迟与补偿、终身未婚比例的变化趋势,未来15-20年我国男性将过渡到晚婚不婚模式,而女性还将保持在晚婚普婚模式。我国婚姻推迟与补偿的性别差异与婚姻挤压有密切关系。     

生育意愿存在同群效应吗？——来自中国社区的经验证据

在人口出生率持续低迷的背景下,研究居民生育意愿的影响因素具有重要的现实意义。现有研究对生育意愿的各种影响因素展开了大量讨论并取得了丰硕的成果,但关于生育意愿的研究大多假设个体为一个“独立”的决策者,并未充分考虑周围群体的行为决策对个体产生的影响。而在“心理效应”以及“学习效应”的作用下,个体的生育意愿也可能会受到他人行为决策的影响,呈现出一定的同群效应。本文基于研究假说,使用中国家庭追踪调查（CFPS）2018年的微观数据对生育意愿的同群效应进行实证分析。实证结果显示社区平均生育水平会对个体的生育意愿产生显著的正向影响,即个体的生育意愿确实存在着明显的同群效应。在稳健性检验中,采用工具变量法、替换被解释变量、缩减样本范围以及更换模型的方式对实证结果进行重新估计后,核心解释变量的系数方向及显著性与基础模型基本一致,表明实证结论具有较强的稳健性。异质性分析结果表明生育意愿的同群效应在城乡归属、年龄阶段以及婚姻状态不同的群体之间存在显著差异。首先,从城乡差异来看,由于乡村地区的社区居住形式以及传统观念等方面的不同,使同群效应对乡村个体的生育意愿所带来的边际影响要明显高于城镇个体;其次,从年龄...     

A demographic explanation for the recent rise in European fertility

Between 1998 and 2008 European countries experienced the first continent-wide increase in the period total fertility rate (TFR) since the 1960s. After discussing period and cohort influences on fertility trends, we examine the role of tempo distortions of period fertility and different methods for removing them. We highlight the usefulness of a new indicator: the tempo- and parity-adjusted total fertility rate (TFRp*). This variant of the adjusted total fertility rate proposed by Bongaarts and Feeney also controls for the parity composition of the female population and provides more stable values than the indicators proposed in the past. Finally, we estimate levels and trends in tempo and parity distribution distortions in selected countries in Europe. Our analysis of period and cohort fertility indicators in the Czech Republic, Netherlands, Spain, and Sweden shows that the new adjusted measure gives a remarkable fit with the completed fertility of women in prime childbearing years in a given period, which suggests that it provides an accurate adjustment for tempo and parity composition distortions. Using an expanded dataset for ten countries, we demonstrate that adjusted fertility as measured by TFRp* remained nearly stable since the late 1990s. This finding implies that the recent upturns in the period TFR in Europe are largely explained by a decline in the pace of fertility postponement. Other tempo-adjusted fertility indicators have not indicated such a large role for the diminishing tempo effect in these TFR upturns. As countries proceed through their postponement transitions, tempo effects will decline further and eventually disappear, thus putting continued upward pressure on period fertility. However, such an upward trend may be obscured for a few years by the effects of economic recession.     

Low fertility due to delay in -- not dearth of -- births

Population Council demographer John Bongaarts and his colleague Griffith Feeney argue that recent concern about a lack of births overlooks the fact that many women in developed countries are simply choosing to bear children later than women used to. So-called birth dearths are often caused by temporary delays in childbearing. The two demographers have designed a new way for demographers to account for the timing, or tempo, of childbearing in estimates of fertility. Their tempo-adjusted total fertility rate (TFR) allows demographers to correct skewed fertility trends, such as those leading to projections of birth dearths. The new measure provides a better indication of women's true propensity to bear children. Standard measures of fertility are distorted by changes in tempo. Such changes occur when large numbers of couples delay or accelerate their initiation of family building. The authors used historical data and theoretical arguments to validate the tempo-adjusted TFR, which improves upon the two common measures of fertility. Flaws in the TFR and the completed fertility rate (CFR) are corrected by Bongaarts and Feeney's new measure. To demonstrate their new tool, they examined the below-replacement fertility seen in recent decades in the US. By the mid-1990s, the TFR in almost every developed country had fallen below the replacement level of 2.1 births/woman, and in Italy, Spain, and Germany it fell below 1.5. If such fertility persists, declining population size, extreme population aging, and financial pressure upon social security systems may result. However, if fertility preferences hold at current levels, the very low fertility rates observed in the developed world will approach 2 children/couple.     

Birth delays skew developing world's fertility figures

This article explains that birth delays skew developing world's fertility figures. When successive groups of women who have delayed childbearing start having children, the rapid fertility decline stalls. Such change in the timing of childbearing skews the total fertility rate (TFR). Analysis of the tempo component of TFR trends in Taiwan suggests that tempo effects reduced its TFR by about 10% in the late 1970s and early 1990s and by about 19% in the late 1980s. In Colombia, on the basis of increasing mean maternal age at childbirth between the 1970s and the late 1980s, tempo distortions of the TFR during the most of the 1980s seem likely. Moreover, many developing countries are now experiencing rapid fertility declines that are in part attributable to tempo changes. These changes have accelerated past fertility transitions, but they also make these countries vulnerable to future stalls in fertility when the delays in childbearing end. Since fertility reductions caused by tempo effects lead to real declines in birth rates and hence in population growth, countries that wish to reduce birth rates can take actions that encourage women to delay marriage and the onset of childbearing.     

The End of the Fertility Transition in the Developed World

By the late 1990s the average period total fertility rate in the developed world had declined to 1.6, a level substantially lower than projected in the 1970s and 1980s. This article examines recent trends and patterns in fertility in the developed world with particular emphasis on the effects and implications of changes in the timing of childbearing. The main objective is to demonstrate that while fertility in these countries is indeed low, women's childbearing levels are not as low as period measures such as the total fertility rate suggest. To obtain a full understanding of the various dimensions of fertility change. several indicators are examined, including period and cohort fertility by birth order and childbearing preferences. An analysis of these indicators demonstrates that period fertility measures in many developed countries are temporarily depressed by a rise in the mean age at childbearing. The distortion of the TFR is as great as 0.4 births per woman in Italy and Spain. These effects have been present in many developed countries since the 1970s and could continue for years into the future. But tempo effects are temporary, and once the postponement of childbearing ends—as it eventually must—the corresponding fertility‐depressing effect stops, thus putting upward pressure on period fertility. Countries with very low fertility and substantial tempo effects may well experience rises in fertility in the near future if the timing of childbearing stabilizes. Even if this happens, however, it seems unlikely that fertility will rebound to the replacement level.     

Immigration to the UK from High‐Fertility Countries: Intergenerational Adaptation and Fertility Convergence

The fertility of immigrants' children increasingly shapes the ethnic diversity of the population in Western Europe. However, few data are available on the fertility patterns of immigrants and their offspring. This article provides new fertility estimates of immigrants and immigrants' children by ethnic group in the United Kingdom that may provide better‐informed fertility assumptions for future population projection models. The impact of migration‐specific tempo effects on the period TFR of immigrants is analyzed. Among the results, intergenerational fertility transitions strongly contribute both to fertility convergence between ethnic groups and to fertility “assimilation” or “intergenerational adaptation” to the UK mainstream childbearing behavior. Ethnic fertility convergence, particularly marked for populations originating from high‐fertility countries, reflects in part decreasing fertility in sending countries and in part intergenerational adaptation to the UK mainstream. Higher educational enrollment of the daughters of immigrants may partly explain their relatively lower fertility.     

Timing effects and the interpretation of period fertility

Low fertility levels and later childbearing in many developed countries have reinvigorated the debate between period and cohort perspectives on fertility and on the meaningfulness of the period total fertility rate (TFR). Here, fertility-timing effects are defined as level changes in period fertility that do not reflect level changes in the completed fertility of cohorts. That definition leads to the average cohort fertility (ACF) as a measure of period fertility adjusted for timing effects. In an influential paper, Bongaarts and Feeney (1998) presented an alternative approach and a different measure, TFR*, to adjust for timing effects. Here, the two measures are compared. In the context of model populations, the ACF performs well, reflecting an average of the fertility of the active cohorts. The Bongaarts-Feeney TFR*, however, is frequently unreliable and can be erratic when there are cycles in period timing. When applied to twentieth-century U.S. experience, the TFR* behaves like a period measure and yields adjustments that are often wide of the mark. The ACF shows the stability associated with cohort measures and quantifies the substantial impact that timing effects had during the "birth dearth" of the 1970s. The period TFR reached a low of 1.74 in 1976, but the ACF never went below 2.06 during the 1970s.     

Multivariate analysis of parity progression—based measures of the total fertility rate and its components

This article describes a methodology for applying a discrete-time survival model—the complementary log-log model—to estimate effects of socioeconomic variables on (1) the total fertility rate and its components and (2) trends in the total fertility rate and its components. For the methodology to be applicable, the total fertility rate (TFR) must be calculated from parity progression ratios (PPRs). The components of the TFR are PPRs, the total marital fertility rate (TMFR), and the TFR itself as measures of the quantum of fertility, and mean and median ages at first marriage and mean and median closed birth intervals by birth order as measures of the tempo or timing of fertility. The focus is on effects of predictor variables on these measures rather than on coefficients, which are often difficult to interpret in the complex models that are considered. The methodology is applicable to both period and cohort data. It is illustrated by application to data from the 1993, 1998, and 2003 Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) in the Philippines.     

An Explanatory Model for Projecting Regional Fertility Differences in the Netherlands

Current differences in the level of the total fertility rate (TFR) between Dutch municipalities are smaller than they were in the 1970s and 1980s. Nevertheless, there are still considerable differences. Small municipalities have higher TFRs than large cities. This article aims to answer the question whether these differences will decline further until differences between large and small cities disappear. For that purpose we develop a regression model of regional differences in the TFR including demographic, socioeconomic, and cultural variables. Using the estimation results we decompose differences in fertility between large and small cities into the contribution of differences in levels of the determinants versus differences in the relationships between the determinants and fertility. The results show that differences in cultural variables have a larger effect on differences in the TFR than the demographic and socioeconomic variables. As cultural differences do not tend to change quickly, they will not lead to quick changes in regional differences in the TFR. Demographic differences are not expected to lead to strong changes either, as the two demographic variables (household structure and ethnic structure) have opposite effects. As the effect of the socioeconomic variable is caused by differences in the magnitude of the regression coefficient rather than by differences in the value of this variable, even if differences in this variable disappeared, this would still not lead to convergence of the TFR. Thus the article concludes that differences in the TFR between large and small cities are not likely to diminish quickly.     

中国育龄妇女生育集中度变化分析——基于“五普”、“六普”数据

新中国成立以来,结束了上千年的封建制度给妇女带来的桎梏,妇女的社会地位有了明显的提升,具体表现在社会活动的参与率有了显著的提高,同时妇女在生育行为方面也发生了巨大的变化。本文利用最近两次中国人口普查数据来分析育龄妇女的生育集中度变化情况,并以此对中国目前TFR很低的现象做了解释,据此推断中国在未来几年的时间,总和生育率在一定程度上会呈上升的变化趋势,但不可能在短期内回升到更替水平。