Evaluating economic theories of NPOs: A survey, a case study and some new directions for socio-economics

The contribution economists have made to the multidisciplinary field of non-profit studies is remarkable when one considers that non-profit organizations (NPOs) have traditionally been regarded as “non-economic” institutions that lie outside the scope of economic analysis. However, despite its achievements there has been concern about the emergence of “theoretical inertia” in the economics of NPOs. This paper suggests some ways in which the revisionist approach reflected in economic theories of the supply-side of the voluntary sector could be augmented. In particular it focuses on the emotional basis for stakeholder commitments and the consequent dependence NPOs have on their organizational leadership to foster the development of shared hopes that can sustain these commitments in the face of disappointments. These ideas are discussed in relation to the provision by NPOs of supported employment services to the disabled.     

Donor relationship management practices in the South African non-profit sector

The importance of non-profit organisations (NPOs) in the South African development sector is undisputed, especially after the economic recession that negatively affected government's delivery of social services. Despite its important role, NPOs experience great difficulties, obtaining sustained funding.     

A common open space or a digital divide? A social model perspective on the online disability community in China

This paper explores the use and impact of the Internet by disabled people in China, informed by the social model of disability. Based on survey data from 122 disabled individuals across 25 provinces in China, study findings suggest that there is an emerging digital divide in the use of Internet amongst the disability community in China. Internet users in our study do not appear to be representative of most disabled people in China. For the minority of disabled people who do have access to the Internet, however, its use can lead to significantly improved frequency and quality of social interaction. Study findings further suggest that the Internet significantly reduced existing social barriers in the physical and social environment for disabled people. Implications for future research, and strategies for increasing reducing the digital divide between the minority of Internet users and the majority of disabled people in China are discussed.     

Atos Healthcare withdraws from the Work Capability Assessment: a comment

In March 2014 Atos Healthcare withdrew a year early from its contract to provide the UK’s health assessment – the Work Capability Assessment (WCA) – that is supposed to sort disabled people into administrative categories according to their adjudged capability to do paid work. This move was welcomed by political elites, with, for example, UK Coalition Government Minister for Disabled People Mike Penning using it to criticise previous Labour governments for the contractual arrangements they put in place – although while the Coalition may have been concerned with the contractual arrangements soon after being formed, it extended the contract for five years. For the UK disability movement, the withdrawal of Atos Healthcare early from the WCA contract was a victory and, at least in part, a consequence of disabled activists’ resistance to the Employment and Support Allowance generally, and the WCA in particular.     

Volunteers for NPOs in Welfare Services in Iceland: A Diminishing Resource?

The question of declining membership of non-profit organizations (NPOs) has been central in academic discussion and research has indicated changes in the way people volunteer. Less emphasis has been on the functions of volunteers as a resource for NPOs and how changes such as increased reliance on professionals in their operations can influence the volume and type of volunteering. This paper examines the value of volunteers as a resource for Icelandic NPOs in the field of welfare services. It is based on a study of the majority of active Icelandic NPOs in the welfare field, as well as an analysis of their respective websites. The findings show that volunteer contributions do not constitute a significant part of the activities of most Icelandic NPOs in welfare services. Apart from membership of boards, volunteers seem to be used primarily as a means of supplementing other resources, such as temporary fundraising efforts. However, the level of volunteering varies according to the size and operational type of organization.     

'We're not asking for anything special': direct payments and the carers of disabled children

1997 saw the introduction of the Community Care (Direct Payments) Act in the UK. This piece of legislation introduced a mechanism that enabled local authorities to make cash payments to disabled people aged between 18 and 64 in lieu of directly provided services. The years since 1997 have seen the introduction of additional legislation resulting in direct payments now being an option for many more groups of people, including the carers of disabled children. Following the changes in the legislation, government now wishes to see local authorities significantly increasing the numbers of families that receive direct payments. This paper will report on a research project carried out within one local authority in the north-west of England that has one of the largest numbers of carers of disabled children receiving direct payments in the UK. Using a variety of methods this paper explores how the local authority has made direct payments so widely available to carers and the effect that this has had on their own and their children's lives.     

Losing Ground: Social Policy and Disabled People in Great Britain, 1980-90

This paper reviews some of the major themes of social policy in Britain over the past decade and examines in detail the impact on disabled people in three major areas: employment; income and social security provision; and the organisation and delivery of health and social welfare services. It will be argued that, despite some superficial similarities between the demands of disabled people and the rhetoric of the New Right for reductions in dependency and control by the state, the dominant policy themes of free market forces, privatisation and reductions in the scope of welfare state services have not served disabled people's interests well. Moreover, attempts to “protect” disabled people within a much reduced welfare state have not been effective and have in any case had the unwelcome consequence of increasing the scrutiny and control exercised by professionals and others. This stands in contrast to the alternative policy agenda articulated by disabled people themselves, which stresses autonomy, integration, an end to discrimination, and rights—to equal chances in employment, to an adequate level of income, and to services which enhance personal choice and facilitate independent living.     

Towards an Affirmation Model of Disability

In this paper we argue that a new model of disability is emerging within the literature by disabled people and within disability culture, expressed most clearly by the Disability Arts Movement. For the purposes of discussion we call it the affirmative model. It is essentially a non-tragic view of disability and impairment which encompasses positive social identities, both individual and collective, for disabled people grounded in the benefits of lifestyle and life experience of being impaired and disabled. This view has arisen in direct opposition to the dominant personal tragedy model of disability and impairment, and builds on the liberatory imperative of the social model. Critiques of the latter have been consistently expressed as, or interpreted as, re-affirmations of personal tragedy, particularly in relation to impairment. In this analysis the affirmation model addresses the limitations of the social model through the realisation of positive identity encompassing impairment, as well as disability.     

A new culture of advocacy: An exploratory analysis of social activism on the web and social media

This study examined how non-profit organizations (NPOs) adapted to the new media environment and created an innovative culture of advocacy to directly facilitate engagement with interested supporters. Findings from this content analysis and virtual ethnography revealed NPOs dramatically transformed the structure of online content. Shifting the emphasis of the web and social media from a one-way transmission of information to an interactive conversation substantially changes the dynamics for activism, and fosters new models of engagement between NPOs and supporters. In this participatory, co-operative media culture, people were actively engaged and shared digital content that inspired others to care about important issues. These overall results indicated that the web and social media, when used to its fullest extent, played a key role encouraging communication and inspiring interaction among individuals on- and off-line.     

Chinese adoption: practices and challenges.

The majority of children in China who are the subject of protective services are either abandoned or disabled. Recent reform efforts in China's child welfare practices have focused on the importance of providing safe, permanent families for children in lieu of long-term institutional care. Although challenges still exist, adoption and foster care are increasingly being seen as viable alternatives for these children.     

Cyborg anxiety: Oscar Pistorius and the boundaries of what it means to be human

Disabled people have a history of being viewed as not entirely human. In the age of spare part surgery and increasing sophistication of drugs, there are increasing concerns about what it means to be human, and, in particular, in what distinguishes people from machines. These concerns have clear resonance with anxieties about disability, and with disabled people being seen as not human. Oscar Pistorius is a disabled athlete whose wish to compete alongside able bodied competitors is causing great concern and worry that his prosthetic legs may give him an unfair - and non-human - advantage. The case of Pistorius breaks entrenched boundaries and lays bare core concerns in society about disability and the body.     

Mapping the Level of Development of Grassroots NPOs in China

Grassroots NPOs have emerged in China in large numbers. Although knowledge about the Chinese nonprofit sector, especially its relationship with the government is accumulating, knowledge regarding the operations of the grassroots NPOs is lacking. This study reviewed the level of development of 78 South China grassroots NPOs involving in rural education. By collecting organizational information on the NPOs’ products, structure and management, governance, human resources, finance and marketing, we developed a framework to assess their capacity. Based on organizations’ performance in the six domains, they were categorized into four different groups: the amateur do-gooders, the start-up charities, the grassroots in transition, and the aspiring young NPOs. We described the key characteristics of each group, and discussed how government policy and organizational leaders’ attitudes influenced organizations’ behavior and development. The assessment tool can be used to guide organizational capacity building in the future.     

The social model of disability: thirty years on

This year marks exactly 30 years since I published a book introducing the social model of disability onto an unsuspecting world and yet, despite the impact this model has had, all we now seem to do is talk about it. While all this chatter did not matter too much when the economy was booming, now it no longer booms it is proving disastrous for many disabled people whose benefits and services are being severely cut back or removed altogether. In the article I restate my view of what the social model was and what I see as its potential for improving the lives of disabled people. Finally I focus on the unfortunate criticisms of it and the disastrous implications these have had for disabled people.     

Chinese disability independent living policy

Despite strong statements on disability rights in Chinese legislation since 1990, independent living policy as experienced by disabled people falls short of the social inclusion goals expected from such a policy commitment. Analysis of empirical research about disabled people's experiences shows that responsibility for independent living rests primarily with disabled people and their families. Only when they have no family does the government provide support, in the form of institutional care. Very little personal assistance or community-based housing is available. Minimum income support and the introduction of social services are slowly addressing the social exclusion of disabled people in China.     

Disabled People,Health Professionals and the Social Model of Disability: Can there be a research relationship?

The social model of disability is proposed as an alternative to models that have viewed disability as an individual, rather than a socio-political issue. The use of this model to guide both research theory and practice is proposed in order to equalise research power relationships, and involve and empower disabled people. Health professionals have traditionally reinforced the medical model of disability in both research and practice, and this has been seen as contributing to the oppression and marginalisation of disabled people. If the social model is to achieve wider dissemination, it would appear important to develop a dialogue between disabled people and health professionals. However, because of negative perceptions it can be difficult for health professionals to find an appropriate position in relation to disabled people, research and the social model of disability. While not denying the past, it appears essential to look at ways in which disabled people and health professionals can work together to overcome the oppression and marginalisation that has been linked to the provision of health services.     

Why Not Consider Citizenship?: A Critique of Post-school Transitional Models for Young Disabled People

The transition from school to 'adulthood', for young disabled people, is generally considered difficult by the relevant literature and service providers in the field. The present transitional models, however, both lack a consensus on the criteria for a 'successful' transition and fail to incorporate the young people into the debate. The young people can be treated with little respect and given little control in transitional decisions, particularly as three negative statuses are typically attributed to them when they face transitional services: of being crisis-ridden adolescents, of being needy clients, and of being marginalized members of society. Instead, a transitional model based on citizenship is advocated, which would include re-locating the debate over 'successful' transition criteria with disabled people, altering the present 'transitional service' systems to revolve around the young people, and greater connections between disability advocacy organizations and young disabled people.     

Cobblers and Song-birds: The Language and Imagery of Disability

In this article the author traces the development and delivery of a workshop on the language and imagery of disability. Within a context of post-modernist ontology and epistemology in which he sees language as the constituent of being, he examines the perceived discrepancy between attitude and structures in relation to disability, considering on the way questions of power and identity. Using a new paradigm narrative, model he discusses the language and imagery of disability created by means of a self-contained text in the workshop, attempting to demonstrate that any language behaviour will illustrate stereotypes in the wider societal culture. Because of the textual methodology he discusses briefly the nature of 'readership'. The workshop was for him an exploration and his discoveries lead him to examine the implications for disabled consultant/trainers and disabled people generally with respect to their relationship with non-disabled society.     

Rights discourses in relation to education of people with intellectual disability: towards an ethics of care that enables participation

In this paper we argue that human rights approaches for intellectually disabled people have failed to recognise the complexity of rights claims made by and on behalf of this group. Drawing on a research project into discourses of education for intellectually disabled people in the Eastern Cape, South Africa we discern three rights discourses; namely, rights to full participation, rights to special services and rights to protection. These draw off a social model, a medical model and a protective model, respectively. We note that these discourses may be set up in contestation with each other. However, we argue that they can be seen as complementary if viewed within an ethics of care that enables participation. Within this conceptualisation, participation is viewed within relations of care but is subject to a critique that examines the role of context and disciplinary power in constructing dependency.     

Social Rights and Disability: the language of 'rights' in community care policies

Social rights and disability: the language of 'rights' in community care policies. The paper argues that what disabled people mean when they speak of 'rights' is relatively under-developed with regard to health and social services. Furthermore, while a claim of 'rights' is typically presented as a fairer alternative to the needs-based character of welfare policies, how such an approach would change the delivery of health and social care is unclear. The paper draws on a landmark test case in community care to explore the problems of a rights-based approach to social justice for disabled people. It demonstrates the weaknesses of rights, especially the more problematic 'social rights', and urges caution in seeking solutions to social problems through the courts. It ends by suggesting that, given the anecdotal evidence about local authorities' tightening their eligibility criteria in the light of the 'Gloucestershire case', that limits on coverage may be the trade-off for implementing rights.