Nonmetropolitan sexual and gender minority youths' friendships: Perceptions of social support among SGM and non-SGM peers

ABSTRACT

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) youth are at risk of victimization which can lead to poor outcomes. Social support can mitigate the effects of minority stressors, yet little is known about social support among nonmetropolitan SGM youth. This study utilized minority stress theory (Meyer, 2003) and Weeks' (1996) theory of how sexual minority communities are constructed to understand how nonmetropolitan SGM youth perceive the support they receive from SGM and non-SGM friends. Qualitative interviews were conducted with nonmetropolitan SGM youth. Youth received general emotional support, relationship advice, and protection from SGM and non-SGM friends. From their SGM friends, participants reported receiving greater closeness and emotional intimacy and assistance with SGM identity development. Participants indicated that receiving acceptance for their SGM identity was important from their non-SGM friends. Participants also discussed the limits to support their non-SGM friends could offer. Implications for practice and research are discussed.     

Gay and Lesbian Adults' Relationship With Parents in Germany

Despite a rapid expansion of research on gay and lesbian family issues, a comprehensive account of intergenerational family relationships for a population‐based sample of adult homosexual children is still lacking. Using more than 7,500 baseline interviews from the German Family Panel (pairfam), this study aimed to fill this gap. The authors analyzed nationally representative data for 2 cohorts (born in 1971–1973 and 1981–1983, respectively) with regard to 5 outcome variables: (a) emotional closeness, (b) contacts, (c) geographic proximity, (d) conflicts, and (e) ambivalence. They found indications of modestly lower levels of emotional closeness to both parents as well as evidence for less frequent contacts of homosexual children with their fathers. Overall, however, the results suggest that adult gay and lesbian children's relations to parents do not differ substantially from those observed among their heterosexual counterparts. The article concludes with a discussion of limitations and potentials for future research.     

Impact of Genetic Relatedness and Emotional Closeness on Intergenerational Relations

Both emotional closeness and genetic relatedness are known to influence helping behavior between family generations, yet few studies have explored them together. The authors investigated the associations between (a) parenthood and perceived emotional closeness toward own parents and parents‐in‐law and (b) emotional closeness and receiving child care from grandparents across and within lineage lines. The data include information on the 8 dyads of possible parent–grandparent relations from a nationally representative survey of young adults in Finland (born 1962–1990, sample N = 1,216). The results show that parenthood was associated with women's emotional closeness to their own mothers and men's emotional closeness to their parents‐in‐law. Maternal grandmothers provided the most grandchild care. After controlling for emotional closeness, the difference in child care provision between one's own mother and one's mother‐in‐law disappeared for women but was accentuated in men. Thus, emotional closeness shapes intergenerational relations differently for kin and in‐laws.     

Parent child relations among very old parents in Wales and the United States: A test of modernization theory

This study contrasts the structure of parent-child relationships of older parents living in Wales, U.K. with those of older parents living in the United States. Specifically, we examine whether the principal dimensions of intergenerational solidarity and their associations with each other, are invariant across two national cultures. Comparable measures are assessed from the responses of older parents participating in three surveys: Bangor Longitudinal Study of Ageing (N = 139), USC Longitudinal Study of Generations (N = 129) and AARP Study of Intergenerational Linkages (N = 102). Overall, there were fewer differences than expected among the samples. Although proximity and contact with adult children were higher among older parents in the Wales sample, there were no appreciable differences in emotional closeness and receipt of help. However, there was a significantly higher correspondence between proximity and emotional closeness among Welsh parents than among both samples of American parents, suggesting that parents in North Wales forge more intimate ties with local children. Moreover, older Welsh parents were more likely than older parents in the American samples to receive help from children who were both proximate and emotionally close. The results are interpreted in terms of the greater importance that neolocality plays in promoting inter generational integration within more traditional cultures and more rural societies.     

The “grands and greats” of very old black grandmothers

This paper examines the grandparent role among 96 black women 85 years of age and older, living in the San Francisco Bay Area. Just over one half have grandchildren and great grandchildren. Most often, grandchildren were referred to generically and not singled out by name and personal characteristics. Some had at least one grandchild with whom they were particularly close. Here, we explore what factors contribute to closeness and what conditions create constraints. Aside from the physical limitations of those in advanced old age, impediments to intergenerational relationships include social changes such as age segregation, entitlement programs for the aged, and the generation gap. Despite these constraints, most grandmothers experienced social and emotional rewards from their children's children. Close relationships are enhanced by proximity, frequency of contact, mutual support, and a past history of surrogate parenting.     

Continuity and Change in Grandchildren's Closeness to Grandparents: Consequences of Changing Intergenerational Ties

Drawing on data from Waves 2 and 3 of the National Survey of Families and Households, this study examines whether grandchildren's (N = 496) previous patterns of closeness to grandparents are associated with their current closeness to grandparents and whether changes in parents’ intergenerational ties make a difference in the development of grandchildren's closeness to grandparents when grandchildren experience young adulthood. The findings suggest that there is a possibility for both continuity and change in grandchildren's bonds to grandparents. Grandchildren's closeness to grandparents was associated not only with their earlier patterns of closeness to grandparents and with parents’ concurrent relations with the grandchild and grandparent generations but also with changes in parents’ intergenerational ties over time. Also, the grandchild's gender moderated linkages between certain intergenerational ties in the family.     

Continuity and Change in Grandchildren's Closeness to Grandparents: Consequences of Changing Intergenerational Ties

Drawing on data from Waves 2 and 3 of the National Survey of Families and Households, this study examines whether grandchildren's (N = 496) previous patterns of closeness to grandparents is associated with their current closeness to grandparents and whether changes in parents' intergenerational ties make a difference in the development of grandchildren's closeness to grandparents when grandchildren experience young adulthood. The findings suggest that there is a possibility for both continuity and change in grandchildren's bond to grandparents. Grandchildren's closeness to grandparents was associated not only with their earlier patterns of closeness to grandparents and with parents' concurrent relations with the grandchild and grandparent generations, but also with changes in parents' intergenerational ties over time. Also, the grandchild gender moderated linkages between certain intergenerational ties in the family.     

Perceptions of Equity,Balance of Support Exchange,and Mother–Adult Child Relations

Equity theory suggests that relationships are more harmonious when both members of a dyad believe that their exchanges are fair. However, the level and frequency of exchange, rather than perceptions of equity, have been the focus of most research on support and the quality of intergenerational relations. Using data from 1,426 mother–child dyads nested within 413 families collected as part of the Within‐Family Differences Study, the authors explored whether mothers' perceptions of equity are better predictors of closeness and tension than are mothers' reports of balanced exchanges of support. Mixed‐model analyses revealed that mothers' perceptions of equity were more consistent predictors of relationship quality than were the balanced exchanges of support, though the results varied somewhat by gender of adult child. These findings contribute to a growing body of research demonstrating that the psychological processes that shape intergenerational relationships mirror those of other ties.     

Adolescents' perspectives on relationships with grandparents: The contribution of adolescent, grandparent, and parent–grandparent relationship variables

There is limited research on adolescent–grandparent relationships, especially from the adolescent perspective and on large-scale samples. The study examined the associations between the adolescent–grandparent relationship (i.e., importance of, emotional closeness to, and respect for grandparents' views) and the characteristics of the adolescent, grandparent, and parent–grandparent relationship, as well as the interactions between several of these factors. It was based on a representative sample of 1478 students aged 11–16 from England and Wales who completed a structured questionnaire. Results supported the position that grandparents are a significant factor in the lives of adolescents. Findings of hierarchical regression analyses showed that more frequent contact, greater grandparent involvement, and better parent–grandparent relationships predicted adolescents' reports on higher levels of emotional closeness to, importance of, and respect for their closest grandparent's views. The interactions consistently emphasized the role of parents as gatekeepers of intergenerational exchange.     

Grandmothers and Their Granddaughters

ABSTRACT

The present study applied Weiss's theoretical framework to better understand interpersonal relationships between grandmothers and their young adult granddaughters. The questions that were of primary focus for the research addressed importance of the relationship provisions, predictors of relationship satisfaction, and variability in importance of closeness and instrumental support. The sample consisted of 48 grandmother-adult granddaughter pairs where the granddaughter was an undergraduate student at a Midwestern university. The Furman and Buhrmester Network of Relationships Inventory (NRI) was used to examine the relationships between grandmothers and their granddaughters. Grandmothers and granddaughters rated the perceived level of admiration, affection, reliable alliance, and relationship satisfaction higher in their relationship with each other than the other relationship provisions. Reliable alliance was rated as the highest relationship provision for grandmothers and granddaughters with the lowest rated being intimacy. The results of ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analyses show that these intergenerational relationships vary along provisions of closeness and instrumental support when predicting relationship satisfaction. These results suggest that programs designed to link generations of women     

Ambivalence in Older Parent–Adult Child Relationships: Mixed Feelings,Mixed Measures

This research compared direct and indirect measures of ambivalence, 2 commonly used strategies for measuring intergenerational ambivalence between older parents and their adult children. Directly and indirectly measured ambivalence, corresponding to felt and potential manifestations of the construct, were contrasted with each other and across generations. Data were derived from 253 older parent–adult child dyads participating in the Longitudinal Study of Generations in 2005. Direct and indirect measures of ambivalence were moderately correlated with each other within each generation. Children expressed greater indirect ambivalence than their parents but were no different than their mothers or fathers in their levels of direct ambivalence. Multivariate regression analyses examining the relationship between each type of ambivalence with individual and relationship characteristics found differences in associations across equations. The results suggest that direct and indirect measures are related but represent 2 distinct conceptions of ambivalence. This research highlights the challenges in understanding the full complexity of intergenerational relations and suggests that both generational perspectives be considered in future research.     

Intergenerational Influences on Perceptions of Current Relationships with Grandparents

Abstract

The purpose of this research is to investigate inter-generational kinship variables as predictors of perceptions of current grandparent-grandchild relationship quality. A lifecourse perspective is used to demonstrate the need for consideration of the GP-GCH relationship within a three-generational, dynamic framework linking the past and present. Matrifocal kinkeeping, lineage and caregiving history hypotheses are tested in the current study. Responses from a combined sample of 321 young adult grandchildren about their relationships with their parents and all living grandparents provide the basis for the present research. GP-GCH relationship quality is the dependent variable under consideration, which combines perceived emotional closeness and frequency of contact with each of the four possible grandparent types. Independent variables tested include caregiving by grandparents during childhood, young adults' current relationship quality with mothers and fathers, and mothers' and fathers' relationships with parents and in-laws, as appropriate. Using stepwise multiple regression, GP-GCH relationship quality is predicted by a history of caregiving for the grandchild by the grandparent in question, as well as direct lineage connections, with mothers' relationships with their children and parents influencing grandchildren's relationships with maternal grandparents, and fathers' relationships with their parents and children showing similar patterns for grandchildren's relationships with paternal grandparents. The present data provide support for lineage and caregiving history hypotheses rather than matrifocal kinkeeping as predictors of intergenerational kinship patterns.     

Intergenerational Coresidence and Family Transitions in the United States, 1850 - 1880

This study uses a new source of linked census data (N = 6,734) to test theories proposed to explain the high intergenerational coresidence in 19th‐century America. Was it a system of support for dependent elderly, or did it reflect intergenerational interdependence? I focus on transitions from middle age to old age, and I assess key predictors of family transitions, including widowhood, retirement, disability, migration, and wealth. The results show that adverse events precipitated changes in the headship of intergenerational families but did not increase the likelihood of residing in an intergenerational family. The findings suggest that 19th‐century intergenerational coresidence was not principally a means of old‐age support; more often, probably, there was a reciprocal relationship between generations.     

Class and class conflict: An objective-subjective interactive approach

Class conflict is one of the biggest sources of social tension. But why do some individuals perceive more class conflict than others? In this article, we consider how subjective self-placement interacts with objective social class to shape people's perception of class conflict. We argue that the common finding that individuals often misidentify with the incorrect class can have implications on how they perceive class conflict in their society. Analyzing data from the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP 1999 and 2009), we find that while, overall, perception of class conflict is higher among the working class and lower among salariats, self-placing lower in the social structure can bring perceptions closer together. Specifically, we show that salariats who deflate their class identities to levels expected of the working class perceive levels of class conflict similar to the working class. This study is among the first to document the disparate effects of the interplay between objective and subjective class on perception of class conflict across countries and over time.     

Older Adults' Perceptions of Well-Being after Intergenerational Experiences with Youth

Abstract

Drawing upon Ryff's (1995) positive dimensions of well-being in older adulthood, thisstudy investigated older adults' perceptions of well-being following participation in anintergenerational program. Specifically, we examined the relationship between age, years of volunteer service, and sense of well-being among older adults (n= 46; 55 to 100 years of age) participating in intergenerational programs at 10 sites in Midwestern, agriculturally based communities. Using a mixedmethods design, results revealed that olderadults perceive a heightened sense of well-being from intergenerational interactions wit youth. Older adults reported successful aging included staying active, not worrying aboutone's problems, feeling young, and keeping up with the children and community. Adults aged 74-85 experienced significantly greater satisfaction and enjoyment than their older counterparts, particularly in anticipating working with youth and positive self-perception. No relationship emerged between years of involvement in the program and well-being. Implications for research and program development are discussed.     

Geographic distance and intergenerational relationships in Chinese migrant families

ABSTRACT

This study examines the effect of adult Chinese migrants’ geographic distance from home on their intergenerational relationships with parents who remain behind. We compared monetary and family care support as well as emotional relationships among four parent-child groups: older adults and international migrant children, older adults and internal migrant children (who migrated to other cities in China), older adults and coresiding children, and older adults and local children (living in the same city as their parents). Data were derived from 332 older adults in Beijing, China, with at least one child who migrated to another country or city. Results from chi-square tests, anaylsis of variance (ANOVA) tests, and regression analyses indicate that international and internal migrant children maintain similar intergenerational relationships with their parents, and that both of those groups are less likely than coresiding and local children to have family care exchanges and emotionally close relationships with their parents. The results may help professionals develop supportive services and policies for older adults in migrant families.     

RELIGION AND INTERGENERATIONAL ASSISTANCE: Distinct Differences by Adult Children's Gender and Parent's Marital Status

Using data from a national and intergenerational survey in 1997, this study examines the link between religion and intergenerational assistance between parents and adult children. Two possibilities are tested. First, religion and assistance are positively associated because religion promotes general prosocial and helping beliefs and behaviors. Second, assistance is greater between parents and adult children who are religiously congruent because strong intergenerational relations are based on parent-child consensus on values and beliefs. The hypotheses are tested separately for continuously married and divorced parents, and interaction models are estimated to determine if the effect of religion varies between adult daughters and sons. Findings support the second argument—religious congruence is more important than individual religiosity in influencing intergenerational assistance. The link between religion and assistance is positive among continuously married parents and adult children, but religion has a mostly negative effect among divorced parents and adult children. Assistance is especially low when either the divorced parent or adult child or both are evangelical Protestants. The disparity in the findings may highlight the different religious and family philosophies of conservative versus mainline religions.     

Intergenerational Solidarity and Support Between Adult Siblings

Using a Dutch national sample containing 1,259 triads (two siblings, one parent), we examined whether practical support and emotional support between siblings are enhanced by intergenerational solidarity and how this differs for brothers and sisters. Sibling support was affected by sibling dyad characteristics and by the relationship with the parent. Having a poor relationship and low contact frequency with the parent enhances sibling emotional support, pointing to a compensating mechanism, which is stronger among brothers. Sibling support is also positively related to parental support, suggesting a reinforcing mechanism, especially among sisters. The results contribute new information about influences on sibling support in adulthood and demonstrate the value of including family context variables in research on specific family relationships.     

Intergenerational Exchange and Expected Support Among the Young‐Old

The authors used data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (N = 5,023) to determine how 3 attributes of intergenerational exchange (content, direction, and recency) are associated with older adults' expected sick care and comfort from their adult children. They found more like–kind associations (expecting same types of support that had been exchanged before) than spillover associations (expecting different types of support than that had been exchanged before). Same patterns of like–kind associations were found for expected sick care and comfort regardless of the direction and recency of exchange, but expected sick care and comfort had different patterns of spillover associations. Specifically, recent emotional transfer, upward or downward, was related to expected sick care, but only recent upward instrumental transfer was related to expected comfort. This study advances the gerontological literature by elucidating the complex relations between each of the 3 attributes of intergenerational exchange and expected support among older adults.     

Intergenerational Programming for Foster-Adoptive Families

Abstract

Generations of Hope serves foster and adoptive children, their adoptive families and older adults through an innovative program that is breaking new ground in the development of caring intergenerational communities. It was created in 1993 as a non-profit social service agency designed to improve the service delivery and policies of the child welfare system; it ended up helping not only foster and adopted children but senior citizens as well. This paper examines critical social issues facing both foster children and senior citizens in the United States and how this program created a neighborhood that combines several generations of kin-like support to meet the needs of these vulnerable groups. We describe how the Generations of Hope model brings together in tangible ways critical shifts in perspective regarding foster care and gerontology. The lessons we have learned speak to research, policy making and practice.