Qualitative research in family therapy: a substantive and methodological review

Over the last decade, marriage and family therapy (MFT) researchers have developed a growing interest in qualitative research. In this article, we review substantive and methodological trends in the published qualitative studies within the MFT field. The research is compared and contrasted in the following areas: General topic, epistemological theory, methodological theory, sampling and sample, data collection, data analysis procedure, and approach to reliability and validity. We also provide recommendations for future research.     

Marriage Expectations Among African American Couples in Early Adulthood: A Dyadic Analysis

Using Family and Community Health Study data consisting of 168 unmarried, primarily African American couples, the current study sought to understand the dyadic interplay among school, work, and partner-specific marriage expectations in early adulthood. Drawing on the economic prospects, adult transitions, and work - family literatures, the authors hypothesized and found ample support that expectations to marry a romantic partner were linked not only to one's own school and work-related experiences but also to those of a partner. These associations held while controlling for relationship satisfaction, general views of marriage, and other covariates that have been posited to explain racial inequalities in relationship and marriage patterns. Furthermore, the authors found that actor covariates of marital expectations differed from partner covariates, a finding that highlights the advantages of dyadic analyses in helping researchers understand marriage as both a developmental and interpersonal process.     

Spatial Statistics for Dyadic Data: Analyzing the Relationship Landscape

Spatial statistics has a rich tradition in earth, economic, and epidemiological sciences and has potential to affect the study of couples as well. When applied to couple data, spatial statistics can model within‐ and between‐couple differences with results that are readily accessible for researchers and clinicians. This article offers a primer in using spatial statistics as a methodological tool for analyzing dyadic data. The article will introduce spatial approaches, review data structure required for spatial analysis, available software, and examples of data output.     

Marriage and Child Well-Being: Research and Policy Perspectives

Over the past decade, the linkages between marriage and child well-being have attracted the attention of researchers and policy makers alike. Children's living arrangements have become increasingly diverse and unstable, which raises important questions about how and why family structure and stability are related to child outcomes. This article reviews new research on this topic, emphasizing how it can inform policy debates about the role of marriage in reducing poverty and improving child outcomes. It also pays special attention to new scholarship on unmarried, primarily low-income families, the target of recent federal marriage initiatives, to appraise the potential contributions of family research to ongoing policy discussions.     

Digital methods in a post-API environment

ABSTRACT

Qualitative and mixed methods digital social research often relies on gathering and storing social media data through the use of APIs (Application Programming Interfaces). In past years this has been relatively simple, with academic developers and researchers using APIs to access data and produce visualisations and analysis of social networks and issues. In recent years, API access has become increasingly restricted and regulated by corporations at the helm of social media networks. Facebook (the corporation) has restricted academic research access to Facebook (the social media platform) along with Instagram (a Facebook-owned social media platform). Instead, they have allowed access to sources where monetisation can easily occur, in particular, marketers and advertisers. This leaves academic researchers of digital social life in a difficult situation where API related research has been curtailed. In this paper we describe some rationales and methodologies for using APIs in social research. We then introduce some of the major events in academic API use that have led to the prohibitive situation researchers now find themselves in. Finally, we discuss the methodological and ethical issues this produces for researchers and, suggest some possible steps forward for API related research.     

Dyadic Supervision Evaluation: An Actor–Partner Relational Model

This article contributes to research practices in marital and family therapy, specifically the dyadic and development over time in clinical supervision, and describes and applies methodological strategies to develop measurements congruent with the systemic and developmental principles of the field. This project evaluates the psychometric properties of the dyadic supervision evaluation (DSE) in terms of measurement equivalence and causality. A structural equation analysis is conducted utilizing the actor–partner interdependent model resulting in a goodness of fit. This study presents a longitudinal model for evaluating the supervisory relationship and proposes a model of clinical supervision evaluation. The relationship among latent constructs in the DSE and its limitations related to inference and application are discussed.     

Associations Between Family of Origin Climate,Relationship Self‐Regulation,and Marital Outcomes

Using dyadic data from 961 married couples from the Relationship Evaluation Questionnaire project, the current study explored the direct association between family of origin climate and marital outcomes and the indirect association via relationship self‐regulation (RSR). Results from the actor–partner interdependence model analysis indicated that family of origin climate was positively associated with marital stability directly and indirectly via the effects of RSR and marital satisfaction for both men and women. Results suggest that the experience one has in their family of origin is associated with their marital outcomes through their RSR. Actor–partner direct and indirect effects indicate that spouses' RSR may have important consequences for both partner's evaluation of the marriage. Implications for intervention and future research are discussed.     

Longitudinal Dyad Models in Family Research

Multilevel modeling allows for the simultaneous analysis of data gathered at more than 1 unit of analysis (e.g., children nested in schools). It is often used to examine the effects of various contexts on individual differences in change. This paper promotes the application of multilevel models to longitudinal dyadic data in family research. By focusing on the dyad as context, researchers can examine within‐dyad change and begin to understand the interactive processes that constitute the relationship between partners. They can then frame questions about interdyad differences in within‐dyad change. We present several longitudinal models that researchers can use to examine the pattern of change within dyads, assess heterogeneity in change across dyads, and investigate cross‐partner effects on change. We comment on the implications of these models for family research.     

Measurement quality issues in dyadic models of relationships

Interpersonal relationships are an important and integral part of numerous social science research agendas. Analytical tools have been created in the last 10 years that model dyadic interactions. In particular, this article focuses on the dyadic models of Fienberg and Wasserman [Fienberg, S.E., Wasserman, S., 1981. Categorical data analysis of single sociometric relations. In: Leinhardt, S. (Ed.), Sociological Methodology. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.], Holland and Leinhardt [Holland, P.W., Leinhardt, S., 1981. An exponential family of probability densities for directed graphs. Journal of the American Statistical Association 76 (1981) 33–51.], Iacobucci and Wasserman [Iacobucci, D., Wasserman, S., 1988. A general framework for the statistical analysis of sequential dyadic interaction data. Psychological Bulletin 103 (1988) 379–390.] and Wasserman and Iacobucci [Wasserman, S., Iacobucci, D., 1986. Statistical analysis of discrete relational data. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology 39 (1986) 41–64.]. However, measurement issues like reliability and validity, as discussed by Allen and Yen [Allen, M.J., Yen, W.M., 1979. Introduction to Measurement Theory. Brooks/Cole, Monterey, CA, 1979.], Nunnally [Nunnally, J., 1978. Psychometric Theory, 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1978.] and Uebersax [Uebersax, J.S., 1988. Validity inferences from interobserver agreement. Psychological Bulletin 104 (1988) 405–416.], have not been considered in conjunction with these models, and little is known about the empirical performance of the dyadic models under sub-optimal measurement quality conditions. We offer two essential approaches to ascertaining the level of measurement error in the observed indicators of social ties and relationships. The first approach combines latent class and social network models in one integrated framework and allows for the simultaneous study of measurement and dyadic structural issues. The second approach is an alternative that may be more useful to social science researchers, both because the method is more accessible and because researchers could apply the techniques to data they have already partially analyzed. This approach is a two-staged procedure whereby in the first stage, a probability model based on latent class analysis is estimated which provides an indication of the measurement quality in the data. In the second stage, traditional social network models are estimated. To investigate the implications of different levels of measurement error for interpreting the nature of the network ties and the dyadic parametric performance, we also designed a Monte Carlo experiment. Measurement error is simulated as the likelihood of a binary relational choice (for simplicity) being inaccurately classified, where incorrect diagnoses can result from poor interitem agreement (i.e., unreliability) or poor interrater agreement. The simulation can be used by researchers in combination with the two-stage approach. The results of the simulation provide guidelines for situations when social network models can withstand a reasonable degree of sub-optimal measurement quality and highlight adverse conditions which can significantly affect the performance of the modeling approach. Further, the simulation shows that sample size assists in reducing the chances of making Type II errors, but it does not compensate for biases in parameter estimates in the presence of increasing error. Finally, the measurement and dyadic analytical methods are applied to a real dataset describing interorganizational relational activity using multiple raters. Recommendations are offered to guide the researcher in making decisions about research design when using dyadic models.     

Methodological triangulation in researching families: Making sense of dissonant data

The research literature on triangulation has paid little attention to the problematic of 'making sense of dissonant data'. Nor has there been much discussion around the use of the technique of triangulation when researching families. Through a presentation of research findings gathered from self-report questionnaires and in-depth interviews with couples and families the possibilities of convergent, complementary and dissonant data and their interpretation are explored. The paper reflects on the ontological, epistemological and methodological tensions that must be negotiated when working with triangulated data. It is argued that given the multi-faceted context and intimate subject matter in family and couples research there is a high likelihood of dissonant findings. Recommendations are made for family researchers interested in the technique of triangulation to consider the context and process of their research in the interpretation of their data. Despite the challenges that triangulation throws up for researchers, it is argued that working within a post-positivist paradigm, triangulation enables analysis which is both more complex and more meaningful.     

Challenges and Opportunities for Research on Same‐Sex Relationships

Research on same‐sex relationships has informed policy debates and legal decisions that greatly affect American families, yet the data and methods available to scholars studying same‐sex relationships have been limited. In this article the authors review current approaches to studying same‐sex relationships and significant challenges for this research. After exploring how researchers have dealt with these challenges in prior studies, the authors discuss promising strategies and methods to advance future research on same‐sex relationships, with particular attention given to gendered contexts and dyadic research designs, quasi‐experimental designs, and a relationship biography approach. Innovation and advances in the study of same‐sex relationships will further theoretical and empirical knowledge in family studies more broadly and increase understanding of different‐sex as well as same‐sex relationships.     

Collecting experimental network data from interventions on critical links in workplace networks

This article describes and discusses challenges associated with interventionist network data gathering in organizational settings, with a special focus on dyadic interventions. While pointing out major risks of these approaches, we argue that collecting data in combination with dyadic network alteration methods can enable social network researchers to explore network mechanisms from a new angle and potentially benefit the members of the targeted social networks and the entire collectives, if certain research design and implementation principles are followed. We introduce a facilitated self-disclosure method for strengthening critical dyads in social networks in combination with longitudinal and retrospective network measurement. We assess the participants’ perceptions of the different stages of this process by qualitative interviews. The study illustrates that experimental network data collection includes some extra challenges in addition to the many challenges of observational network data collection but participants also reported practical benefits that would not be gained through observational network surveys alone. The results highlight the importance of early and continuous communication during the data collection process with all research participants, not just the management, and the benefits of sharing more of the preliminary results. The lessons learnt through this study can inform the design of experimental network data collection to prioritize the preferences of the participants and their benefits.     

Studying marriage and family therapists in the 21st century: methodological and technological issues

In this article, I present data from two waves of research on demographic characteristics and practice patterns of marriage and family therapists (MFTs) conducted in 2000 and 2002. The research focuses on the methodological and technological issues in studying this population. Specifically, an online survey with MFTs obtained lower response rates and was therefore more expensive relative to phone and mail methods. Questions about evidence-based therapies (EBTs) were asked two different ways with significantly different results based on how the questions were phrased. A discussion of the relative advantages and disadvantages of using different survey methodologies and consideration of issues pertinent to studying EBTs are included.     

Status of Family Theory and Research in Switzerland

The sociology of marriage and the family in Switzer- land does not have a long history of theorizing and empirical research. It is only during the last two decades that research groups at the socio- logical institutes of the Universities of Zurich and Geneva special- ized in this field. Research was first of all stimulated by the dramatic socio-demographic changes that occurred in the late 1960s which called for sociological explanations, and secondly by the contradic- tions between these changes and the strong normative traditionalism peculiar to Switzerland. Nevertheless family research in Switzerland is still relatively marginal, compared to other topics of social sciences. A scientific center continuously dealing with family issues is still lacking. Swiss family researchers will therefore continue to integrate themselves into the broader framework of European family research.     

Marginal Structural Models: An Application to Incarceration and Marriage During Young Adulthood

Advanced methods for panel data analysis are commonly used in research on family life and relationships, but the fundamental issue of simultaneous time‐dependent confounding and mediation has received little attention. In this article the authors introduce inverse‐probability‐weighted estimation of marginal structural models, an approach to causal analysis that (unlike conventional regression modeling) appropriately adjusts for confounding variables on the causal pathway linking the treatment with the outcome. They discuss the need for marginal structural models in social science research and describe their estimation in detail. Substantively, the authors contribute to the ongoing debate on the effects of incarceration on marriage by applying a marginal structural model approach to panel data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (N = 4,781). In line with the increasing evidence on the collateral consequences of contact with the criminal justice system, the authors find that incarceration is associated with reduced chances of entering marriage.     

Sexually open versus sexually exclusive marriage: A comparison of dyadic adjustment

In a study conducted in 1978, using Spanier's (1976) Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS), couples in a sexually open marriage and couples in a sexually exclusive marriage were compared on dyadic adjustment. One hundred and thirty sexually open respondents were matched with 130 sexually exclusive respondents. It was found that there was no difference in response patterns between people in a sexually open marriage and those in a sexually exclusive marriage who were still living together with their spouses. On the other hand, persons who were no longer living together with their spouses, regardless of whether they were open or exclusive sexually, scored significantly lower on dyadic adjustment.The author gratefully acknowledges James R. Adams, Ph.D., for his part in the conduct of this research.     

Incorporating sexual orientation into MFT training programs: infusion and inclusion

Many authors have questioned the preparedness of family therapists to deal with sexual minority clients. Even though the Commission on Accreditation for Marriage and Family Therapy Education (COAMFTE) has called for the integration of sexual orientation into the curriculum of marriage and family therapy training programs, the subject continues to be marginalized. The purpose of this article is to encourage trainers to examine their programs' curricula for evidence of heterosexist bias and introduce ways that they might integrate issues related to same-sex affectional and sexual orientations into their programs via the classroom and the clinic.     

“The Compass of Our Life”: A Qualitative Study of Marriage and Faith Among Chinese Immigrants

Twenty highly religious Chinese Christian married couples (n = 40) were interviewed to examine how religious faith influenced their perceptions of marriage and family life. Most participants held advanced graduate degrees (14 PhD and 13 MS degrees). Their ages ranged from 28 to 66, and the number of children ranged from one to four. Grounded theory methods (including open coding and axial coding) were applied to analyze the data. Based on the interview data three emergent themes were identified: (1) Moving from atheism to theism (“God is love”), (2) changing perceptions of marriage (“Marriage is established by God”), and (3) a new priority (“Put God first”). Supporting qualitative data are presented in connection with each theme. Implications for research and practice related to Chinese immigrants’ marriage and family in the United States are discussed.     

Expanding Systems Thinking: Incorporating Tools from Medical Sociology into MFT Education and Research

The field of marriage and family therapy has historically focused on dynamics within family systems, and at times the role of social and cultural factors external to the family. To date, however, little scholarship has examined how therapists themselves are embedded within a mental healthcare system. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate how structural components of the mental healthcare system shape the practice of therapy. We draw from the field of medical sociology to illustrate how three dominant structures—managed care, diagnosis, and evidence‐based models—are intertwining and mutually reinforcing systems that have significant and long‐term implications for systemic therapists and researchers. We recommend incorporating a sociological understanding of such structures into MFT education and research.     

An Introduction and Illustration of Bayesian Modeling in Couple and Family Therapy Research

Bayesian modeling is becoming increasing popular as a method for data analyses in the social sciences and can move couple, marriage, and family therapy (C/MFT) research forward. Bayesian modeling helps researchers better understand the uncertainty of findings and incorporate previous research into analyses. Other benefits of Bayesian modeling are the straightforward interpretation of findings, high-quality inferences even with small samples (in combination with an informative prior), and the ability to work with complex data structures (observations nested in relationships and time points) which are common in C/MFT research. This article introduces the benefits of Bayesian modeling and provides an example of an Actor–Partner Interdependence Model using R. Information on how to conduct the same analyses using Stata and MPlus is provided in the Supplemental Information.