THE TAX LITIGATION DECISION: AN ANALYSIS OF THE SMALL CLAIMS DIVISION OF THE U.S. TAX COURT*

One of the more difficult but intriguing problems in the tax field is the decision of when (and how) to settle tax disputes with the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and when (and how) to litigate. Research in this area of decision making is limited and has concentrated on the probability of winning in the judicial system. This paper examines the tax litigation decision for suits in the Small Claims Division of the U.S. Tax Court. Four examples are presented which involve varying degrees of information regarding the likelihood of a settlement and differing risk attitudes. The maximum amount the taxpayer should be willing to spend in pursuing litigation is derived for each case.     

结构性减税下小微企业税率调整分析模型

本文针对结构性减税政策在支撑实体经济、调整产业结构方面边际效果日趋减弱,且对小微企业减税领域研究的匮乏和非系统性的特点,建立了一个结构性减税下小微企业税率调整分析模型。通过对企业员工、小微企业和政府三层次目标的讨论,逐步得出各关键指标的表达式,建立了政府目标同小微企业税率的关系模型,在此基础上推导出九个相关命题。研究发现：税率调整在本质上是国民对福利和就业两种需求的偏好替换;并不存在最优的小微企业税率,只存在最差的小微企业税率。目前我国设定的小微企业税率低于最差税率,属于左侧税率;税率优劣取决于其与最差税率的偏离程度,而不是绝对值。研究结果还表明：在不改变既有左侧税率的前提下,政府也可以通过加大对职业培训和社会医保等领域的投入,实现结构性减税所要达到的效果。模型的建立和相关命题的引入,丰富了结构性减税政策的理论体系,对小微企业的税率调整有一定的实践意义。     

TAX POLICY REFORM: THE ROLE OF EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE

To understand the role of evidence in tax policy design, this paper organizes the empirical analysis of reform under five loosely related headings: (i) key margins of adjustment, (ii) measurement of effective tax rates, (iii) the importance of information and complexity, (iv) evidence on the size of responses, and (v) implications from theory for tax design. The context for the discussion is the recently published Mirrlees Review of tax reform. Although the Review focused on all aspects of tax reform, this paper highlights the taxation of earnings. It also comments on earnings taxation in the context of VAT base‐broadening reforms and the taxation of capital.     

碳税政策下制造商竞争的供应链定价策略和社会福利研究

本文在考虑消费者环境意识下，探讨了制造商竞争情形下基于碳税政策的供应链成员定价策略和社会福利问题。研究表明，碳税政策的实施均会使得普通产品和低碳产品的批发价格和零售价格上升，且普通产品的价格变化总是较低碳产品更加明显；实施碳税政策前后，清洁型制造商面临的产品需求和利润变化总是较普通制造商更具有相对优势；制造商竞争有利于碳税政策引导制造商降低单位产品的碳排放量，实现绿色转型；碳税政策下，不论是清洁型制造商还是普通制造商，他们降低自身产品的单位碳排放量对提升自身产品在需求上的优势或减少自身产品在需求上的劣势都是有益的。当制造商之间的竞争性较小时，实施最优的碳税政策可以显著改善社会福利；特别是当消费者环境意识水平较低时，实施最优的碳税政策更为必要。当制造商之间的竞争强度较大时，不论消费者环境意识高低，直观税率值1可以作为一个近似最优的碳税政策，用以改善社会福利。     

THE APPLICABILITY OF THE MAXI–MIN PRINCIPLE TO PORTFOLIO SELECTION IN TERMS OF MEANS AND VARIANCES OF UNKNOWN DISTRIBUTIONS

This paper establishes two propositions which allow a risk-a verse decision maker to apply a maxi-min strategy in his portfolio selection. The strategy consists of selecting a portfolio in which the lower bound of the expected utility is maximized. The propositions have their greatest applicability in situations in which the investor knows the means and variances of the portfolio returns, but has no other knowledge relating to the probability distributions governing the rates of return.     

THE IMPACT OF TAX POLICY ON INVESTMENT BEHAVIOR IN THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY, 1951-65

The purpose of this study was to estimate the impact of changes in Federal tax policy on investment behavior in the chemicals and allied products industry and to examine the possibility of a differential impact of changes in tax policy on investment behavior in manufacturing industries. The impact of changes in tax policy on investment behavior in the chemical and allied products industry was estimated and compared with the impact of tax policy on investment behavior in total manufacturing found in earlier studies. The model used to estimate the impact of changes in tax policy on investment behavior in the chemicals and allied products industry was the neo-classical model of capital accumulation as formulated initially by Dale Jorgenson. The conclusions reached were that changes in tax policy have had a measurable impact on investment behavior in the chemical and allied products industry which was greater as a percentage of gross investment than that found on total manufacturing in earlier studies.     

基于低碳视角的政府监管与制造商生产的演化博弈研究

政府制定的监管政策对制造商生产策略的选择具有重要影响。本文基于低碳视角，引入政府碳税系数、补贴系数、低碳产品生产成本等参数，针对税收与补贴混合政策、单一税收政策和单一补贴政策三种模式，分别建立了政府与制造商之间决策行为的演化博弈模型，对比分析了不同监管政策下政府和制造商达到均衡所需条件的差异，并进一步探讨了影响政府、制造商决策的关键因素。研究结果表明，当初始生产低碳产品的制造商比例相同时，政府实施混合政策比单一税收政策或补贴政策对制造商生产低碳产品的激励作用更加明显。政府监管与政府低碳税收、高碳产品罚款和监管成本有关，制造商生产低碳产品受到产品成本、收益的影响。研究结论不仅为政府制定低碳产品政策提供了科学依据，也为制造商选择低碳产品策略给予了决策支撑。     

基于税盾效应的供应链贸易信用融资优化决策研究

针对中小企业融资困境的现实,本文基于贸易信用融资模式,引入税盾效应,建立了由单一核心供应商和单一经销商组成的含税盾的贸易信用模型,探讨有融资需求的经销商进行订货、核心供应商定价的决定策略,探究不同计息方式的价值实现和融资模式优选。通过stackbelberg博弈、比较分析和算例验证,研究发现以订货量确定为基准,融资需求出现的时点对供应链企业计息方式的选择均有影响。税法关于利息抵扣上限、贸易信用贷款利率、订货量等均影响经销商计息方式的选择,融资额度影响其订货策略;生产成本的差额、定价策略影响供应商的计息方式。     

Development of Economic Consequence Methodology for Process Risk Analysis

A comprehensive methodology for economic consequence analysis with appropriate models for risk analysis of process systems is proposed. This methodology uses loss functions to relate process deviations in a given scenario to economic losses. It consists of four steps: definition of a scenario, identification of losses, quantification of losses, and integration of losses. In this methodology, the process deviations that contribute to a given accident scenario are identified and mapped to assess potential consequences. Losses are assessed with an appropriate loss function (revised Taguchi, modified inverted normal) for each type of loss. The total loss is quantified by integrating different loss functions. The proposed methodology has been examined on two industrial case studies. Implementation of this new economic consequence methodology in quantitative risk assessment will provide better understanding and quantification of risk. This will improve design, decision making, and risk management strategies.     

A Systems‐Based Risk Assessment Framework for Intentional Electromagnetic Interference (IEMI) on Critical Infrastructures

Modern infrastructures are becoming increasingly dependent on electronic systems, leaving them more vulnerable to electrical surges or electromagnetic interference. Electromagnetic disturbances appear in nature, e.g., lightning and solar wind; however, they may also be generated by man‐made technology to maliciously damage or disturb electronic equipment. This article presents a systematic risk assessment framework for identifying possible, consequential, and plausible intentional electromagnetic interference (IEMI) attacks on an arbitrary distribution network infrastructure. In the absence of available data on IEMI occurrences, we find that a systems‐based risk assessment is more useful than a probabilistic approach. We therefore modify the often applied definition of risk, i.e., a set of triplets containing scenario, probability, and consequence, to a set of quadruplets: scenario, resource requirements, plausibility, and consequence. Probability is “replaced” by resource requirements and plausibility, where the former is the minimum amount and type of equipment necessary to successfully carry out an attack scenario and the latter is a subjective assessment of the extent of the existence of attackers who possess the motivation, knowledge, and resources necessary to carry out the scenario. We apply the concept of intrusion areas and classify electromagnetic source technology according to key attributes. Worst‐case scenarios are identified for different quantities of attacker resources. The most plausible and consequential of these are deemed the most important scenarios and should provide useful decision support in a countermeasures effort. Finally, an example of the proposed risk assessment framework, based on notional data, is provided on a hypothetical water distribution network.     

Accountability,Political Views,and Bureaucratic Behavior: A Theoretical Approach

This study has developed a theoretical framework to predict bureaucratic behaviors with career public officials’ political views (whether career public officials agree or disagree with their overhead political principals’ ideology) and bureaucratic accountability (accountability either to the overhead political principals or to the public sentiment) by adopting and extending Hirschman’s (1970) exit, voice, and loyalty model. Given the two conditions, this study has drawn four propositions of possible bureaucratic responses: loyalty; voice; exit; and silence. In addition, the stay scenario is discussed for passive bureaucrats regardless of the two dimensions. By incorporating relevant examples with the propositions, this study expects to contribute to a better understanding of bureaucratic behavior.     

服务外包知识协作：双向性、关系性与互补性

随着知识密集型项目比重的逐步提升,知识协作问题已成为服务外包组织战略中最重要的部分。本文分析了服务外包知识协作的静态特性,划分了知识协作过程的主要阶段,并提出了一个概念模型。在此基础上,建立了一个两阶段动态博弈模型,通过分别针对发包企业与接包企业之间两种合作模式下的均衡分析,提出了三个重要的命题：首先,发包企业和接包企业在知识共享中存在双向激励;其次,基于良好关系的企业间合作型知识决策模式有利于组织收益最大化;最后,较高的知识互补性对知识共享水平有正向促进作用。     

Corporate Strategy Formulation and Taxation: Evidence from UK Firms*

This paper considers the relationship between corporate strategy formulation and taxation. Drawing on prior literature we briefly review the important influence that international taxation has on an array of corporate strategy decisions. We then consider issues in strategy formulation and taxation planning in order to develop an understanding of when and how taxation factors impinge on strategic decision‐making. We draw out the apparent paradox between the nature of strategic decision‐making and financial decision‐making and look for areas of reconciliation. In order to shed light on some of these issues we present findings from the qualitative analysis of a set of personal interviews undertaken with senior tax practitioners in seven UK‐based multinational enterprises and then consider quantitative responses from the tax practitioners working in 145 UK firms.     

基于碳排放的废弃产品回收站点分布研究

基于碳税价格对废弃产品回收运营决策的影响考虑,本文从整个社会的视角,把顾客、回收站点、回收总站作为一个整体进行考虑,并分析碳税价格对回收站点数量和成本的影响。首先,将顾客、回收站点和回收处理中心作为整体,考虑能源成本、运营成本和碳排放费用,建立废弃产品回收站点分布的社会总成本模型。接着,对碳税价格为零和碳税价格无穷大两种极端情况,分析了回收站点的数量、碳税价格、社会总成本等因素之间的关系。最后对模型进行数值计算。结果表明：当前碳税价格下,同时考虑碳税成本和运营费用或仅考虑运营费用这两种情况计算出来的回收站点数量相等,单位总成本区别不显著,即碳税价格对运营影响不大;若仅考虑碳税成本,则回收站点数量变化较大,即合理的碳税价格对运营影响显著;碳税价格理想的定价应该在40.03至66.46之间;回收站点数量为66时,碳排放量最优。     

Income Maintenance and Labor Force Participation

The paper studies the optimal tax‐subsidy schedules in an economy where the only decision of the agents is to work, or not, with an application to the case of France. Given an income guarantee provided by the welfare state, the tax schedule that maximizes government revenue provides a benchmark, the Laffer bound, above which it is inefficient to tax. In fact, under mild conditions, a feasible allocation is second best optimal if and only if the associated taxes are lower than the Laffer bound. The only restriction that efficiency puts on the shape of the tax scheme is this upper Laffer bound. The Laffer tax scheme itself can be computed from the joint distribution of the agents' productivities and work opportunity costs. Depending on the economy, it can take widely different forms, and exhibit, for instance, negative marginal tax rates. After estimating the joint distribution of productivities and work opportunity costs on French data, I compute the Laffer bound for two subpopulations, single women and married women with two children or more. Quite surprisingly, the actual incentives to work appear to be very close to the bound.     

供应链中的批量与信用期联合决策研究

信用支付契约是使供应链各方达到协调的重要手段。本文在单个制造商和单个零售商组成的两级供应链系统下,建立了制造商和零售商的库存控制模型,提出了联合决策零售商的订货批量,以及制造商的生产批量和定期信用支付期的启发式算法。给出了利润分配方案,以使供应链达到协调。最后,本文通过算例验证了模型和算法的有效性,为运用信用支付契约协调供应链提供了理论依据。     

COGNITIVE STYLE AND THE USEFULNESS OF INFORMATION*

The desirability of a merger/acquisition alternative depends in part on the perceptions of the decision maker. What sources of information are “useful” to the decision maker & Does the set of useful information remain constant for all decision makers; if not, do individuals using similar information sets have similar information processing characteristics? Do these sets vary as feedback is obtained during the decision process? To answer these questions, graduate students participated in a modified Delphi experiment, and the resulting data were analyzed by the two-way aligned-ranks nonparametric test. These test results affirm that in a merger/acquisition scenario, decision makers with different cognitive styles prefer different sets of information and these sets vary dynamically as feedback is incorporated in the decision-making process. Furthermore, information that contains worker and community welfare considerations is identified as “useful” five times more frequently by decision makers with a “feeling” cognitive style than those with a “thinking” style.     

政府激励政策下人造板绿色供应链谈判-协调机制研究

当前我国人造板产业面临效率低下、资源浪费和环境污染等问题,上下游企业缺乏合作与协调。本文界定了人造板绿色供应链系统,运用契约理论和纳什谈判理论,分别构建了政府激励政策下人造板绿色供应链集中优化决策、分散均衡决策和谈判协调决策模型,从而建立了相应的收益分享-成本分担契约谈判协调机制,并基于相关行业和企业经验数据,与传统人造板供应链进行了对比数值分析。研究结果表明:(1)收益分享-成本分担契约谈判-协调机制能够很好地实现人造板绿色供应链的协调运营,提高资源效率,降低环境负影响和提升运营绩效。(2)人造板绿色供应链管理模式下供应链及其成员的最优利润均高于传统管理模式,谈判协调决策情形下供应链及其成员的最优利润均高于分散均衡决策情形。(3)制定有"门槛"的增值税即征即退政策和适当的环境税政策,自建经济林场、选用经济型枝桠材,强化技术研发和工艺改进,有助于提高人造板供应链运营绩效。     

Nonparametric Estimation with Nonlinear Budget Sets

Choice models with nonlinear budget sets provide a precise way of accounting for the nonlinear tax structures present in many applications. In this paper we propose a nonparametric approach to estimation of these models. The basic idea is to think of the choice, in our case hours of labor supply, as being a function of the entire budget set. Then we can do nonparametric regression where the variable in the regression is the budget set. We reduce the dimensionality of this problem by exploiting structure implied by utility maximization with piecewise linear convex budget sets. This structure leads to estimators where the number of segments can differ across observations and does not affect accuracy. We give consistency and asymptotic normality results for these estimators. The usefulness of the estimator is demonstrated in an empirical example, where we find it has a large impact on estimated effects of the Swedish tax reform.