Issues of shared parenting of LGBTQ children and youth in foster care: preparing foster parents for new roles

Foster parents have increasingly assumed new and challenging roles during the past decade. Meeting the developmental, attachment, and grieving needs of children and youth in out of home care is challenging by itself, but can become even more difficult with the issues that arise when the child is lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or questioning (LGBTQ). Preservice and in-service foster parent training programs can strengthen shared parenting skills by focusing on the universal critical issues of safety, well being, and permanence for children and youth in foster care. This article will focus on these skill areas: (1) sharing parenting to promote healthy growth and development of LGBTQ youth in foster care, (2) threats to safety of LGBTQ youth in foster care, and (3) general challenges and strategies for preparing foster parents of LGBTQ youth to build support systems.     

Developmentalism and the Rhetoric of Best Interests of the Child

Abstract

The foster care system in Australia has recently recognised the importance of encouraging lesbians and gay men to become foster carers. Whilst this may be seen as an important step towards overcoming social stereotypes that position lesbians and gay men as unfit parents, I propose that foster care public policy in Australia is shaped by a number of key assumptions that effectively exclude lesbian and gay foster parents. In particular, I focus on how the logic of developmentalism [where children are assumed to follow a (hetero)normative developmental pathway] and the rhetoric of best interests of the child (within which a particular moral framework is employed to judge who can and who cannot protect children) work to recenter a normative understanding of families and parenting that encourages lesbians and gay parents to adopt a heterosexual model of parenting.     

Foster parent perceptions of competency: Implications for foster parent training

Studies have examined factors that impact successful placements in foster care. Absent from this body of research, however, are factors that promote foster parent competence. The purpose of this study was to assess perceived competency of foster parents, subsequent to pre-service training, in tasks of foster parenting across 12 domains of foster parenting as recommended by previous research. The sample consisted of 20 foster parents who had completed foster parent training within the past five years. Although foster parents in this study rated themselves as competent in primary domains of foster parenting, there were mixed results as to their satisfaction and acceptance of demands of foster parenting in relation to foster family adjustment and working with a complex care system. Implications for therapeutic interventions are discussed.     

Foster fathers performing gender: the negotiation and reproduction of parenting roles in families who foster

ABSTRACT

Foster care research and social work practice tend to focus on how women look after children living in foster care. This focus has limited our understanding of what it is that men do within foster caring families and they are automatically assigned secondary or breadwinning roles. Families who foster involve some form of renegotiation of roles to care for children they foster. While foster caring arrangements are internationally diverse, foster carers often work with social workers. It would therefore seem important for social workers to understand how foster carers negotiate their parenting roles. This paper reports findings from seven main caring foster-fathers who took part in a wider study involving twentythree foster-fathers. The evidence provided by these foster-fathers demonstrate they are highly motivated to care for children and, alongside delivering traditional parenting roles, they negotiate new, non-traditional parenting roles as foster-fathers. These new roles, taken on by foster-fathers, often challenge stereotyped masculinity while they also concurrently enact parenting norms. This study applied Judith Butler’s work on performing gender to foster caring families to theorise on the process whereby foster-fathers negotiate diverse masculinities and continue to reproduce gendered relations in foster caring families.     

Children in Foster Care and the Development of Favorable Outcomes

Young foster children have invariably faced a variety of risks that are strongly linked to long-term deficits in functioning across multiple developmental domains. Despite these risks, however, some children demonstrate more favorable outcomes and exhibit adaptation and the development of assets. In the present study, the relationship of early childhood factors (e.g., maltreatment history, placement history, parenting practices, environmental stress, developmental status, and attachment behavior) to the development of favorable outcomes in middle childhood was examined in a sample of foster children who had been in foster care in preschool (N = 35). Favorable outcomes were defined as demonstrations of emotion regulation and school adjustment during middle childhood. Developmental status (particularly attention and executive functioning) and a lack of environmental stress during early childhood foster care experiences had a significant positive relationship with the development of emotion regulation and school adjustment in middle childhood.     

Parent training in foster families with children with behavior problems: Follow-up results from a randomized controlled trial

The present randomized controlled trial examined the four months follow-up effectiveness of Parent Management Training Oregon (PMTO) for parents with foster children (aged 4–12) with severe externalizing behavior problems in long-term foster care arrangements. The aim of PMTO, a relative long and intensive (6–9 months, with weekly sessions) parent management training is to reduce children's problem behavior through improvement of parenting practices. We specifically investigated whether PMTO is effective to reduce foster parenting stress. It was expected that PMTO would reduce parenting stress in foster parents, improve the quality of parenting practices, and reduce children's problem behavior. Multi-informant (foster mothers, foster fathers, and teachers) data were used from 86 families. Multilevel analyses based on the intention to treat principle (retention rate 73%) showed that PMTO, compared to care as usual, had no significant direct, nor indirect or sleeper effects at follow-up on parenting stress, parenting behavior and child behavior problems. Earlier reported immediate effects of PMTO on reduced parenting stress at posttest disappeared at follow-up. Additional analyses on the role of non-specific intervention factors in PMTO effects showed that higher therapist fidelity scores resulted in stronger effects of PMTO on parenting responsiveness, parental explaining and autonomy granting. Unexpectedly, higher fidelity scores also predicted less decrease of parenting stress at follow-up.     

Crisis nursery services and foster care prevention: An exploratory study

ObjectiveTo examine whether receiving crisis nursery services reduces the chances of subsequent placement of children into foster care.MethodThe study includes a sample of 322 children from the administrative data from a crisis nursery in Ohio. Generalized estimating equations analysis was conducted to assess the relationship between crisis nursery services (case management and parenting education) and subsequent foster care placement.ResultsThe generalized estimating equations analyses indicated that case management and parenting education provided from the crisis nursery were associated with reduced likelihood of subsequent foster care for children who were placed in the crisis nursery. Foster care placement during the previous 12 months and Caucasian race were also associated with higher odds of subsequent foster care placement.ConclusionsCrisis nursery services delivered with case management and parenting education may be an effecive intervention to reduce children's subsequent foster care placement.     

Foster parents' coping style and attitudes toward parenting

Foster parents have the greatest influence on the well-being of a foster child. A good selection procedure is needed to recruit capable and high quality foster families, and to reduce the risk of breakdown. Therefore we examined the coping style of foster parents and their attitudes toward parenting. The attitudes toward parenting and the coping style of 188 Flemish non-kinship foster parents were examined using a Dutch version of the Adult–Adolescent Parenting Inventory (AAPI-2) and a Dutch version of the short form of the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS-SF). Flemish foster parents had average scores on the four subscales or were at medium risk for negative parenting. Only for the two subscales inappropriate expectations and role reversal half of the foster parents had positive attitudes toward parenting. A total foster parents ranging from 0.5% to 8% were at high risk for negative parenting. No foster and family characteristics were associated with attitudes toward parenting. Foster parents use all of the four different coping styles (task-oriented, emotion and avoidant (treat oneself and find a friend) coping). The preferable coping style is for half of the foster parents taskoriented coping. An emotional coping style could be predicted by age and total years as foster parents. This research shows that foster parents were at medium risk for negative parenting and prefer a taskoriented coping style to handle foster care problems.     

Flemish Foster Mothers’ Perceptions of Support Needs Regarding Difficult Behaviors of Their Foster Child and Their Own Parental Approach

Family foster care is a valuable, but vulnerable type of out-of-home placement. Adequate support of foster parents is an important factor for placement success. This requires an accurate assessment of the support needs of foster parents. This paper focuses on the support needs of foster mothers concerning difficult behavior of the child and their own parenting behavior. Data were gathered from 282 foster mothers. 46 % of the foster mothers needed support on at least one behavior of the child, 40 % on at least one parenting behavior. Foster mothers, who felt less competent to deal with the child, expressed a higher support need on both areas. A high support need concerning difficult behaviors was further predicted by the foster mother’s age, the type of foster care, and the number of biological children. A high support need concerning parenting was further predicted by the quality of support by the foster care worker and the number of foster children. Careful monitoring of all types of foster care situations with special attention to problem behaviors and how to handle them could make this type of out-of-home-placement more effective.     

Planned and unplanned terminations of foster care placements in the Netherlands: Relationships with characteristics of foster children and foster placements

This study examined the role of placement and child characteristics in the unplanned termination of foster placements. Data were used from 169 foster children aged 0 to 20. Results showed that 35% of all foster placement terminations were unplanned. Outcomes of logistic regression analyses demonstrated that behavior problems, parenting stress and a non-Dutch ethnic background of the foster child increased the likelihood of a placement termination. Furthermore, risk accumulation contributed to unplanned terminations. The results indicate that supporting foster parents in managing problem behavior of the foster child and reducing parenting stress may be a key to an effective prevention of disrupted foster care placements.     

Adaptation and Evaluation of a Nonviolent Resistance Intervention for Foster Parents: A Progress Report

Foster care faces serious challenges, such as behavioral problems in foster children and parental stress and ineffective parenting behavior in foster parents. The results of a pilot study that evaluated a training program for foster parents based on nonviolent resistance are described. In a pretest–posttest design, data were collected from 25 families. Significant reductions in externalizing, internalizing, and total problem behavior in the foster children and in parenting stress were found. Using a reliable change index, significant improvements in externalizing, internalizing, and total problem behavior were found in, respectively, 72, 44, and 80% of the cases. Most improvements proved to be clinically relevant. Effect sizes ranged from medium to large for problem behavior, and from small to medium for parenting stress.     

Parenting Under Pressure: Experiences of Parenting While Aging Out of Foster Care

Youth “aging out” of foster care experience higher rates of adolescent parenting than their peers who have not been in care. Due to their history of maltreatment, high adolescent pregnancy rates, and poor psychosocial outcomes, youth aging out who are parents are a vulnerable at-risk group. This study examines the parenting experiences of 33 youth aging out (21 mothers and 12 fathers) using data from a larger ethnography. Field notes of observation and transcribed interviews of youth aging out who are parents were analyzed using open coding strategies. Findings show parents encountered challenges while aging out and parenting, yet they found joy in their children and strived to be good parents despite having limited parenting skills, few resources, and little support. Desiring a better life for their children and fearing their children would enter foster care, parents were motivated to improve their lives for their children. Implications are discussed.     

Transitioning youth: Policies and outcomes

The primary policies and outcome studies regarding youth transitioning from foster care and young adults who have aged out of foster care over the past quarter of a century are reviewed. Although several policies have increased services and funding for this population, overall, their outcomes have not significantly improved. In terms of educational achievement, employment, and well-being, many continue to fare poorly in young adulthood. Further policies and practice improvements may need to be implemented. The population of youth transitioning has far outpaced the funding available, state and program eligibility requirements may be eliminating the most vulnerable from services, in many states there is an inadequate provision of basic needs such as housing and healthcare, the expectations of self-sufficiency for this population now exceed societal norms, and the restrictions and placement instability associated with many older adolescents in care may be in contrast to their developmental needs. In order to more fully address the needs of youth transitioning from foster care, child welfare policies and practices may need to focus more attention on the relational and social development of youth while in foster care. Furthermore, during young adulthood, policies and practices may need to provide greater safety nets and resources to this population.     

Youth in Foster Care and Social Media: A Framework for Developing Privacy Guidelines

Although youth in foster care most likely use social media websites, there appears to be a lack of policy guidelines related to this use. When one considers youth in foster care, the state's mandate to provide safety, and foster parents' rights to exercise parenting responsibilities, the notion of privacy and the use of social media becomes complex. Critical Systems Heuristics will be introduced as a tool in developing policy recommendations. An application of this framework will be provided which can serve as a guide for an agency or workgroup tasked with developing policy guidelines for social media use by youth in foster care.     

Comparing the health status of low-income children in and out of foster care

Children in foster care face poverty, family dysfunction, neglect, and abuse, with high rates of chronic health, emotional, and developmental problems. This study compared the overall health status of a group of children entering foster care with a group of Medicaid-eligible children living with their parents, matched for age and gender. It identified significantly more health and developmental problems in children in foster care than in the comparison group. Possible contributors to the higher percentage of problems among foster care children may be that the foster children have more problems related to the underlying risk factors resulting in placement, or that the foster care physicians conducted a more comprehensive assessment or had lower clinical thresholds. Further research is necessary to identify and treat the problems of this high-risk group.     

Privatized child welfare services: foster parents' perspectives

This study reports on the impressions of foster parents following the privatization of family foster care services in Kansas. A randomly selected sample of foster parents from one agency was surveyed to assess their current level of satisfaction, their opinions about privatization, and their experiences with newly established community-based treatment teams. Although overall satisfaction has remained high, opinions vary about specific aspects of foster parenting under managed care. Implications for supporting and enhancing the role of foster parents are discussed.     

Parenting stress and parenting behavior among foster mothers of foster children with externalizing problems

Foster children often have externalizing problems. Since foster parents are selected and trained, they are often expected to be able to handle the externalizing problems of these children. Very little is, however, known about foster parents' parenting stress and parenting behavior in the context of challenging foster caregiving. In this study, the parenting stress and parenting behavior of 39 foster mothers of recently placed foster children with externalizing problems were studied. By using standardized measures with normative data, foster mothers' scores on different parenting stress and parenting behavior subscales were compared to published norms. Foster mothers of children with externalizing problems experienced more parenting stress than the norm group. The parenting context, provided by these foster mothers, was similar to the parenting context provided by the norm group. The prevalence of specific dysfunctional parenting behaviors (e.g., less involvement in positive parenting) was small to moderate, but nearly half of the foster mothers could be classified as making dysfunctional adaptations to their parenting environment. Moreover, only the minority of foster mothers provided an adaptive parenting context (e.g., more than average involvement in positive parenting). The implications of these results for pre-service training and on-going support for foster parents are discussed.     

Aggression and depression among abused and non-abused children in foster care

This study compared the aggressive coping behaviors and depressive reactions among 30 physically abused and 30 non-abused children in foster care. Multiple regression analysis identified experiencing abusive parenting, affective mood depressive themes, and school performance as accounting for 63 percent of the variance in overt aggressive behavior within the sample. The abused children connected the reasons for placement with their own behavior; the non-abused children, with a crisis event. The findings support the need for differential foster care programming for children placed in care.     

Replication of the KEEP foster and kinship parent training program for youth with externalizing behaviors

This article presents findings from Maryland KEEP, a replication of KEEP (Keeping Foster and Kinship Parents Trained and Supported), a foster and kinship parent training intervention. We examined child behavior change, changes in caregiver parenting style, and permanency and placement stability at baseline and then after the KEEP intervention. The KEEP intervention was provided to 65 foster and kinship parents providing care for children ages 4–12. Children who participated in the study were referred due to behavior problems, as reported by foster parents: they all scored in the clinical range for externalizing behavior on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Baseline and posttest analyses assessed for child behavior and parenting style changes. Permanency data, including placement moves and exits from child welfare were examined. Overall, foster and kinship parents reported significantly fewer child behavior problems at posttest; severity levels on the CBCL and scores on the Parent Daily Report decreased. However, there were not any changes in parenting styles from baseline to posttest. Placement stability significantly increased between baseline and post-KEEP intervention. The results provide support for the effectiveness of KEEP for a child welfare population with a high level of behavior problems and for the effectiveness of KEEP as a training program for foster and kinship parents.     

Concept mapping the needs of grandmothers who take care of their grandchildren in formal foster care in Flanders

Concept mapping was used to identify the needs of grandparents who take care of their grandchildren in formal foster care in Flanders (Dutch speaking part of Belgium). One hundred and nine grandmothers were asked to describe their needs in response of the question: “What do you need to be a good foster parent for your grandchild(ren)?” Next, the unique responses were sorted by 41 grandmothers, and analyzed using multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis. Furthermore, grandmothers were asked to indicate the degree of importance of each statement. Twenty-eight unique responses were grouped into eight clusters. In descending order of importance these clusters referred to the parenting relationship with their grandchild, parenting conditions, support and trust in the future and the child's schooling, collaboration with and support from the foster care agency, material conditions, social support from the wider context, respite care, and contact arrangements. Their needs resemble the needs of regular foster parents, with the exception of some specific needs related to their specific situation, such as feeling ‘out of step’ with innovations and new technologies, health issues, finding a balance between the grandparent role and foster parent role, and the need for a positive and reassuring vision of the future.