Moral character: What it is and what it does

Moral character can be conceptualized as an individual's disposition to think, feel, and behave in an ethical versus unethical manner, or as the subset of individual differences relevant to morality. This essay provides an organizing framework for understanding moral character and its relationship to ethical and unethical work behaviors. We present a tripartite model for understanding moral character, with the idea that there are motivational, ability, and identity elements. The motivational element is consideration of others – referring to a disposition toward considering the needs and interests of others, and how one's own actions affect other people. The ability element is self-regulation – referring to a disposition toward regulating one's behavior effectively, specifically with reference to behaviors that have positive short-term consequences but negative long-term consequences for oneself or others. The identity element is moral identity—referring to a disposition toward valuing morality and wanting to view oneself as a moral person. After unpacking what moral character is, we turn our attention to what moral character does, with a focus on how it influences unethical behavior, situation selection, and situation creation. Our research indicates that the impact of moral character on work outcomes is significant and consequential, with important implications for research and practice in organizational behavior.     

Ethical leadership and follower organizational deviance: The moderating role of follower moral attentiveness

The literature on ethical leadership has focused primarily on the way ethical leaders influence follower moral judgment and behavior. It has overlooked that follower responses to ethical leaders may differ depending on the attention they pay to the moral aspects of leadership. In the present research, we introduce moral attentiveness as an important moderator for the relationship between ethical leadership and unethical employee behavior. In a multisource field study (N = 90), we confirm our hypothesis that morally attentive followers respond with more deviance to unethical leaders. An experimental study (N = 96) replicates the finding. Our paper extends the current leader-focused literature by examining how follower moral attentiveness determines the response of followers to ethical or unethical leadership.     

Ethically adrift: How others pull our moral compass from true North,and how we can fix it

This chapter focuses on the social nature of morality. Using the metaphor of the moral compass to describe individuals’ inner sense of right and wrong, we offer a framework that identifies social reasons why our moral compasses can come under others’ control, leading even good people to cross ethical boundaries. Departing from prior work on how individuals’ cognitive limitations explain unethical behavior, we focus on socio-psychological processes that facilitate moral neglect, moral justification, and immoral action, all of which undermine moral behavior. In addition, we describe organizational factors that exacerbate the detrimental effects of each facilitator. We conclude by advising organizational scholars to take a more integrative approach to developing and evaluating theory about unethical behavior and by suggesting further study of interventions that might disempower these social triggers of unethical behavior, allowing us to regain control of our moral compasses.

A solitary organism has no need for moral rules, nor does a creature living among others without mutual dependency. (Høgh-Oleson, 2010, p. 3).

     

Corporate ethics: evidence from Islamic banks

The purpose of this study is to investigate whether banks’ management behavior is related to corporate ethics. We employ earnings-management and expense-preference measures to evaluate management behavior. Using a very large sample of banks from 15 countries and controlling for a number of bank- and country-level factors, we find that managers in Islamic banks are less likely to engage in unethical business practices compared to those in commercial banks. We also document that Shari’ah supervisory boards embedded in Islamic banks affect and shape managerial behavior and mitigate agency problems. These results establish a link between corporate ethics and management behavior through Shari’ah and Shari’ah supervisory boards.     

Moral humility: In life and at work

If behavioral ethics research from the past two decades has taught us nothing else, it has made it abundantly clear that humans are morally fallible. Indeed, there are everyday examples—in the workplace and beyond—of people who unwittingly violate their personal moral values, finding numerous ways to rationalize and justify otherwise morally objectionable behavior. In this article, we argue that acknowledging one’s own moral fallibility and developing moral humility can be an influential step in helping bridge the gap between a person’s values and behaviors. Specifically, we define and make the case for moral humility as a fundamental virtue that can help people better avoid unethical behavior and enable virtuous behavior. Specifically, we explore the potential effects of having low (insufficient), high (optimal), and extremely high (excessive) levels of moral humility on multiple outcomes at the individual, interpersonal, and organizational levels. Our hope is to encourage future research on this important but underexamined construct.     

Approach,Ability, Aftermath: A Psychological Process Framework of Unethical Behavior at Work

Abstract

Many of the scandalous organizational practices to have come to light in the last decade—rigging LIBOR, misselling payment protection insurance, rampant Wall Street insider trading, large-scale bribery of foreign officials, and the packaging and sale of toxic securities to naïve investors—require ethically problematic judgments and behaviors. However, dominant models of workplace unethical behavior fail to account for what we have learned from moral psychology and cognitive neuroscience in the past two decades about how and why people make the moral decisions they do. In this review, we explain how intuition, affect, physiology, and identity support and inform more deliberative reasoning process in the construction and enactment of moral behavior. We then describe how these processes play into how individuals approach a potential moral choice, whether they have the ability in the moment to enact it, and how it is encoded in the action' aftermath, feeding back into future approaches. Throughout, we attend to the role of organizational context in influencing these processes. By reviewing this large body of research and presenting a new framework that attempts to integrate these new findings, our hope is to motivate new research about how to support more moral workplace behavior that starts from what we know now.     

The ethical mirage: A temporal explanation as to why we are not as ethical as we think we are

This paper explores the biased perceptions that people hold of their own ethicality. We argue that the temporal trichotomy of prediction, action and recollection is central to these misperceptions: People predict that they will behave more ethically than they actually do, and when evaluating past (un)ethical behavior, they believe they behaved more ethically than they actually did. We use the “want/should” theoretical framework to explain the bounded ethicality that arises from these temporal inconsistencies, positing that the “should” self dominates during the prediction and recollection phases but that the “want” self is dominant during the critical action phase. We draw on the research on behavioral forecasting, ethical fading, and cognitive distortions to gain insight into the forces driving these faulty perceptions and, noting how these misperceptions can lead to continued unethical behavior, we provide recommendations for how to reduce them. We also include a call for future research to better understand this phenomenon.     

On the approximability of positive influence dominating set in social networks

In social networks, there is a tendency for connected users to match each other’s behaviors. Moreover, a user likely adopts a behavior, if a certain fraction of his family and friends follows that behavior. Identifying people who have the most influential effect to the others is of great advantages, especially in politics, marketing, behavior correction, and so on. Under a graph-theoretical framework, we study the positive influence dominating set (PIDS) problem that seeks for a minimal set of nodes $\mathcal{P}$ such that all other nodes in the network have at least a fraction ρ>0 of their neighbors in $\mathcal{P}$ . We also study a different formulation, called total positive influence dominating set (TPIDS), in which even nodes in $\mathcal{P}$ are required to have a fraction ρ of neighbors inside $\mathcal{P}$ . We show that neither of these problems can be approximated within a factor of (1??)lnmax{Δ,|V|^1/2}, where Δ is the maximum degree. Moreover, we provide a simple proof that both problems can be approximated within a factor lnΔ+O(1). In power-law networks, where the degree sequence follows a power-law distribution, both problems admit constant factor approximation algorithms. Finally, we present a linear-time exact algorithms for trees.     

国外企业不道德行为研究述评

近年来,由企业不道德行为引发的企业"丑闻"已经导致许多著名企业的破产,这也使得企业不道德行为成为管理者和学术界关注的焦点。然而,目前国内关于企业不道德行为的研究相对薄弱。有鉴于此,本文在梳理国外对于企业不道德行为研究文献的基础上,总结了不道德行为的内涵和测量;接下来梳理了不道德行为的理论研究流派,对不道德行为的前因和结果进行了回顾,并讨论了对企业不道德行为的管理方式;最后对当前研究的不足和未来的研究方向进行了展望,以期对今后的相关研究提供一些启示。     

Computing globally optimal (s,S,T) inventory policies

We consider a single-echelon inventory installation under the (s,S,T) periodic review ordering policy. Demand is stationary random and, when unsatisfied, is backordered. Under a standard cost structure, we seek to minimize total average cost in all three policy variables; namely, the reorder level s, the order-up-to level S and the review interval T. Considering time to be continuous, we first model average total cost per unit time in terms of the decision variables. We then show that the problem can be decomposed into two simpler sub-problems; namely, the determination of locally optimal solutions in s and S (for any T) and the determination of the optimal T. We establish simple bounds and properties that allow solving both these sub-problems and propose a procedure that guarantees global optimum determination in all policy variables via finite search. Computational results reveal that the usual practice of not treating the review interval as a decision variable may carry severe cost penalties. Moreover, cost differences between (s,S,T) and other standard periodic review policies, including the simple base stock policy, are rather marginal (or even zero), when all policies are globally optimized. We provide a physical interpretation of this behavior and discuss its practical implications.     

Setting the stage for effective leadership: Antecedents of transformational leadership behavior

Although transformational leadership behavior (TLB) has been linked to a number of positive organizational outcomes, research regarding the antecedents of such behavior is limited. Guided by Ajzen and Fishbein's theory of reasoned action [Psychological Bulletin 84 (1977) 888], we investigated two potentially relevant antecedents to performing TLB: cynicism about organizational change (CAOC) and the leader's social context—specifically peer leadership behavior. We hypothesized that CAOC would negatively predict TLB, while peer leadership behavior would positively predict TLB. Further, we expected that peer leadership behavior would have a positive moderating effect on leader CAOC. Data were gathered from 227 managers from multiple organizations and their 2247 subordinates. Findings supported the proposed hypotheses. Cynicism and peer leadership behavior explained nearly one quarter (24%) of the variance in TLB. Further, it appears that both CAOC and TLB may be malleable in organizational contexts. Implications for leadership research and practice are discussed.     

Incorporating social networks into leadership development: A conceptual model and evaluation of research and practice

Multilevel and relational views of leadership are expanding the focus of leadership development beyond individuals' knowledge, skills, and abilities to include the networked patterns of social relationships linking members of dyads and larger collectives. In this review, we present a conceptual model explaining how three distinct approaches for network-enhancing leadership development can improve the leadership capacity of individuals and collectives. We then present a review of the leadership development literature and the results of a survey of 282 practitioners to assess the extent to which these approaches have been examined in research and implemented in practice. Our review revealed that leadership research and leadership development practice are outpacing leadership development research in terms of incorporating networks. We aim to spur future research by clarifying the targets, objectives, and underlying mechanisms of each network enhancing leadership development approach in our conceptual model. Further, we identify additional literature, not traditionally considered within the realm of leadership development that may help advance empirical examinations of these approaches.     

Goal Statements and Goal-Directed Behavior

Summary

Goal setting has consistently been shown to increase performance under specific conditions. These goal setting effects have previously been explored from both a cognitive perspective and in terms of traditional behavioral concepts. We highlight limitations of these approaches and propose a novel account based on Relational Frame Theory. This account focuses on both the content of goal statements and the contingencies that maintain goal-directed behavior. The content of goal statements is analyzed in terms of relational networks established for employees. We then detail how the current account explains the major effects noted in previous empirical studies. Two broad types of rule following contingencies that support goal-directed behavior, pliance and tracking, are then described. We then outline how these different types of contingencies results in the variety of goal-directed behavior observed in organizations. Throughout we relate this two-part approach to goal setting to specific recommendations for practice and future basic research.     

The effect of charismatic leaders on followers’ memory,error detection,persuasion and prosocial behavior: A cognitive science approach

Adopting a cognitive and follower-centric approach to charismatic leadership, we hypothesized that followers show lower levels of cognitive effort, reflected in superficial processing of factually correct information when listening to and viewing a charismatic leader. We conducted two experiments, using a 2 (charismatic versus neutral) × 2 (female versus male leader) between-subjects design and videos of trained actors delivering a speech. We examined the effects of leader charisma on (1a) followers’ ability to detect factually false information, (1b) accuracy to remember information from the leader (study 1, N = 100), (2a) the persuasiveness of factual messages, (2b) followers’ prosocial behavior and (2c) the mediating effect of the leader’s persuasiveness on followers’ prosocial behavior (study 2, N = 140). We did not find support for the effect of leader charisma on detecting false information, the persuasiveness of messages, or increased prosocial behavior among followers. We found an effect of leader charisma on memory. Participants recognized fewer messages in the charismatic compared to the neutral leader conditions. Exploratory analyses provided mixed results for an interaction effect of leader charisma and sex on detecting and remembering false information. Our studies offer first insights into the cognitive outcomes of the charismatic signaling process.     

网上消费者非伦理行为:特性、维度与测量

本文基于群体极化、去个性化与利已主义理论,对网上消费者非伦理行为的特性、维度和测量进行了系统探讨。研究结果发现,网上消费者非伦理行为的本质特征可经由行为动机和行为目标对象两个核心视角揭示,情绪支配和行为目标对象泛化是其重要特性面。此外,研究还发现,网上消费者非伦理行为是一个多维概念,其维度可依行为动机(利益动机、情绪动机)和行为目标对象(具体对象、泛化对象)组合提炼,主要维度包括扰乱秩序行为、恶意利已行为、节制伤害行为和侵犯版权行为。研究最终确立了一套专门针对网上消费者非伦理行为的测量量表。     

Ein empirischer Validit?tsvergleich zwischen Adaptive Self-Explicated Approach (ASE), Pairwise Comparison-based Preference Measurement (PCPM) und Adaptive Conjoint Analysis (ACA)

The increasing complexity of many products makes high demands on methods used for measuring consumer preferences. In such cases, practitioners frequently use Adaptive Conjoint Analysis (ACA). However, compositional approaches also proved to be efficient. Recently, Srinivasan and Netzer (2011) suggested a promising compositional technique called the Adaptive Self-Explicated Approach (ASE), which significantly outperformed ACA regarding its predictive validity. Another advantageous approach, called Pairwise Comparison-based Preference Measurement (PCPM), was introduced by Scholz et al. (2010). This paper contrasts the popular ACA with these two new compositional approaches and discusses the validity results of an empirical study in the leisure industry. For two out of three criteria PCPM partly leads to a significantly higher predictive validity and a halving of the survey time. As products and services become more complex, multi-attribute preference meas urement techniques have to cope with a large number of attributes. Particularly Adaptive Conjoint Analysis (ACA) and compositional approaches are often applied to complex products. Two new alternative compositional approaches have been recently proposed, the Adaptive Self-Explicated Approach (ASE, Srinivasan und Netzer 2011) as well as Pairwise Comparison-based Preference Measurement (PCPM, Scholz et al. 2010). In first empirical applications, the authors found that the predictive validity of ASE and PCPM was significantly higher than that of ACA. In an empirical study involving theme parks, we compare ASE and PCPM as well as the benchmark ACA with respect to several criteria of validity. We find that the predictive validity is significantly higher for the PCPM with respect to two (out of three) criteria. Moreover, the PCPM survey was about half the length of the ACA survey.     

Preventing unethical publication behavior of quantitative empirical research by changing editorial policies

Recent cases of unethical publication behavior have raised the question of how to address it. Because scientific misconduct (conduct inconsistent with accepted scientific standards) can occur on a continuum ranging from honest errors to outright fraud, there is a need to change editorial policies to reduce the existence of any gray areas. In the case of quantitative empirical research, misconduct begins with honorary and ghost authors, plagiarism and self-plagiarism, and extends to manipulation or even fabrication of data and the reporting of biased or false results. It is suggested that journals should retract articles, inform retraction watch more frequently, use plagiarism software, ask for better and more detailed documentation of procedures so that research can be replicated and potentially analysed as manipulation, and reveal possible affiliations that might lead to biases. These policies will also facilitate faster learning, which will be beneficial to society.     

Correct accounting for duty drawbacks with outward and inward processing in global production networks

We develop a new model for the correct accounting of customs duties levied on a product. We examine inward and outward processing – that is, processed components can be either imported or produced in a foreign country – in the strategic planning of a global production network. This complex modeling problem is structured with path variables, and the duty drawbacks can be simultaneously and correctly entered for n production stages in m market regions (with corresponding duty regions) for all products with a maximum n-level bill of materials. We present a case study from the automotive industry to examine whether or not the possibility of future duty rate changes or free trade agreements, such as one between the United States and the European Union, could affect the design of a production network and hence should be considered in strategic planning. We show that correctly accounting for duty drawbacks can lead to changes in the global footprint of production. We also demonstrate that intercontinental trade barriers (in the form of duties) diminish working capital and entail longer delivery routes. Eliminating these political trade barriers could increase the returns to capital while reducing both delivery lead times and environmental costs.     

Does power corrupt the mind? The influence of power on moral reasoning and self-interested behavior

We test whether leaders' power shapes their reasoning about moral issues and whether such moral reasoning subsequently influences leaders' display of self-interested behavior. We use an incentivized experiment to manipulate two components of leader power: power over more versus fewer followers and power to enforce one's will by having discretion over more versus fewer payout options to allocate between oneself and one's followers. We find that having power over more followers decreased leaders' principled moral reasoning, whereas having higher power to enforce one's will enabled leaders to engage in self-interested behavior. We also find suggestive evidence that power over increases self-interested behavior by decreasing principled moral reasoning; the effect of power to was not mediated by moral reasoning. These results illustrate that power activates self-interest within and outside the context in which power is held. They also show that moral reasoning is not a stable cognitive process, but that it might represent an additional path via which power affects self-interested behavior.     

“行高人非”:旁观者不道德侵害“好公民”的原因及其机制探析

组织公民行为是组织成功的关键因素。现有研究主要以"好公民"为视角,探讨了组织公民行为的前因与后果,至今少见从第三方(旁观者)视角的组织公民行为研究。对旁观者而言,他们可能对"好公民"的组织公民行为本身、动机以及结果形成负面认知,因而可能做出伤害"好公民"的不道德行为。为系统探讨组织公民行为的这种不道德旁观者效应及其机制,本研究提出了在"认知-情感-行为"框架下研究"旁观者不道德侵害好公民"之问题的新思路,分别依据社会比较理论、情感事件理论以及归因理论分析了这一现象的原因和过程机制。这一前瞻性的探索工作,不仅剖析了旁观者为什么以及如何对"好公民"做出不道德行为,而且也为研究"组织公民行为的黑暗面"探究了一种新的可能方向,推动了组织公民行为的理论发展和创新。