Adolescents' Sibling Relationship and Friendship Experiences: Developmental Patterns and Relationship Linkages

The goal of this study was to compare developmental changes in adolescents’ relationship experiences with their siblings versus with their best friends and to determine whether individual differences in adolescents’ sibling experiences were associated with differences in friendship experiences. Participants included 179 firstborn‐secondborn adolescent sibling pairs (N = 358). At the onset of the study, firstborns averaged 15 years of age, and secondborns, 12.5 years of age. Siblings were interviewed individually about their relationship experiences during home interviews each year for three consecutive years. Analyses focused on two relationship dimensions: emotional intimacy and control. Adolescents reported more intimacy with friends than with siblings and more control with siblings than with friends. In the face of these overall patterns, developmental changes in both firstborns’ and secondborns’ reports of intimacy differed across relationships, with sibling intimacy increasing and friendship intimacy decreasing; declines were evident in these two relationships in the case of control. Associations between sibling and friendship experiences were more apparent for control than for intimacy and for secondborns as compared to firstborns. Discussion focuses on the conditions underlying connections between adolescents’ interpersonal relationship experiences.     

When Does Parents’ Differential Treatment Have Negative Implications for Siblings?

We compared the extent of parents' differential treatment (PDT) and girls' and boys' perceptions of parents' fairness in middle childhood and adolescence as a function of the gender constellation of the sibling dyad. Further, we examined links between PDT in three domains, parental warmth, parents' temporal involvement, and the allocation of household tasks, and both siblings' self esteem and positivity in the sibling relationship. Participants were mothers, fathers and both first- and secondborn siblings from 385 families. To collect information on siblings' family experiences and well-being, family members were interviewed individually in their homes. During the subsequent 2–3 weeks, 7 evening telephone interviews also were conducted; these focused on siblings' daily activities. Analyses revealed different patterns of PDT for siblings as a function of age and gender constellation, stronger links with self esteem and sibling positivity for perceptions of fairness than for PDT, and different patterns of association with self esteem and sibling relations across domains of PDT. We emphasize the importance of studying the processes through which PDT experiences have implications for siblings.     

Self-representations in Early Adolescence: Variations in Sibling Similarity by Sex Composition and Sibling Relationship Qualities

Self-representations play an important role in adolescent development. This study compared self-representations for siblings and explored whether sibling relationship characteristics are associated with similarities or differences in sibling self-concepts. We examined self-representations of 438 adolescent sibling dyads ( M age younger sibling  =  11.6 years, M age older  =  14.3 years), finding that siblings are, on average, similar in their self-representations. This similarity varied, however, depending on sex composition and sibling relationship qualities. Results indicated that sibling modeling, warmth, and conflict were especially influential in predicting sibling resemblance vs. dissimilarity.     

A longitudinal examination of power in sibling and friend conflict

This study examined use of power resources and power effectiveness during the process and outcome of focal children's disputes with their sibling and friend across early and middle childhood. Participants included 35/46 families; focal children (15 males, 20 females) were observed at the age of four (T1) and 3 years later at the age of seven (T2) at home. Sibling and friend conflict sequences were coded for power resources (coercive physical, coercive verbal, simple information, elaborated information, legitimate), immediate power effectiveness (attempt, success), and conflict outcome. Relationship effects indicated focal children employed coercive physical and legitimate power more with siblings whereas they used simple information power more with friends during the conflict process. Focal children were more effective using legitimate power with siblings than friends in the conflict process whereas information power was used more when focal children won conflicts with friends. Regarding developmental effects, focal children employed more coercive physical power at T1 than T2 and elaborated information power at T2 than T1. In contrast, focal children were more effective using information power and coercion when winning conflicts with friends at T2 than T1. Results highlight variability in children's use of power based on relationship partner and development.     

Competing Processes of Sibling Influence: Observational Learning and Sibling Deidentification

Although commonly cited as explanations for patterns of sibling similarity and difference, observational learning and sibling deidentification processes have rarely been examined directly. Using a person‐oriented approach, we identified patterns in adolescents' perceptions of sibling influences and connected these patterns to sibling similarities and differences and sibling relationship qualities. Participants included two adolescent‐age siblings (firstborn age M = 16.39, second‐born age M = 13.78) from 171 maritally intact families. Two‐stage cluster analyses revealed three sibling influence profiles: modeling, deidentification, and non‐reference. Analyses revealed differences in the correlations between firstborn and second‐born siblings' personal qualities across the three groups and differences in the sibling relationship qualities of younger siblings who reported modeling vs. those who reported deidentifying from their older siblings. Discussion focuses on refining the study of sibling influence processes.     

Parents’ and friends’ responses to discrete negative emotions: Associations with adolescent emotional experiences

Emotion socialization (ES) impacts a range of youth socioemotional outcomes. However, research often examines parent socialization of negative emotions more broadly. Research examining multiple socializers demonstrates that variety in ES messages may promote flexibility in youth socio-emotional adjustment. The current study examined how parents’ and friends’ supportive socialization of discrete negative emotions (anger, sadness, worry) related to adolescents’ emotional experiences. Eighty-seven adolescents (50 girls; 13–15 years old, M age = 14.23 years) reported on parent and friend supportive ES in 8^th grade. Sixty-four of these adolescents reported their own emotional experiences in 9^th and/or 10^th grade. Parents’ supportive ES was higher than friends’ for sadness and worry. Divergence between parent and friend ES of sadness related to lower increases in anger over time. There were effects of convergence in ES of anger, as matches between parent and friend ES were related to less experience of all three negative emotions. There were unique effects of parent and friend ES of worry. Parent ES of worry related to adolescents’ balance of anger and sadness, whereas friend ES of worry related to decreased sadness over time. These findings suggest that ES and its relations with adolescent emotional experience varied by discrete emotions, as each carries a different meaning and function. Future research should examine processes connecting discrete emotional experiences within interactions and across time.     

Genetic Contributions to Adolescents' Extrafamilial Social Interactions: Teachers, Best Friends, and Peers

The purpose of the present study was to investigate genetic and environmental contributions to individual differences in adolescents' social interactions outside the family. We investigated sibling resemblance for adolescents' reports of interactions with best friends and teachers, and parents' perceptions of adolescents' peer groups in 701 same-sex adolescent sibling pairs aged 10-18, using a twin, full sibling, and step sibling design. Our goals were to assess the magnitude of sibling resemblance, and to disentangle resemblance due to shared genetic heritage from that due to shared environmental experiences. Substantial genetic influence was found for parents' perceptions of adolescents' peer groups. Adolescents' reports of positive interactions with teachers and best friends also showed significant genetic influence. In contrast, individual differences in adolescents' reports of negative interactions with teachers and best friends showed no significant genetic influence. In addition, most environmental influences for social interactions with teachers, best friends, and peers were largely of the nonshared variety, suggesting that growing up in the same family does not make adolescents similar in their extrafamilial social interactions.     

A Genetic Analysis of Differential Experiences of Adolescent Siblings Across Three Years

Environmental factors work to make siblings in the same family different from one another rather than similar. The Sibling Inventory of Differential Experience (SIDE; Daniels & Plomin, 1985) was constructed to evaluate how differently siblings perceive their experiences to be across three domains: parental treatment, sibling treatment, and peer characteristics. The goals of the study were threefold: to assess the degree to which siblings agree about their differential experiences; to examine the stability of perceived differential treatment across three years; and to assess genetic and environmental contributions to the SIDE using both the twin design and the stepfamily design. These goals were explored using a genetically sensitive sample of 719 same-sex sibling pairs ranging from 10 to 18 years of age of whom 94% of eligible pairs were retested three years later. Results indicated moderate agreement between siblings, and considerable stability across 3 years. As in previous research on the SIDE, MZ vs. DZ results indicated greater genetic influence than did results for full siblings vs. genetically unrelated siblings. The results suggest that, although intended as a measure of nonshared environment, the SIDE is not impervious to genetic influence as assessed by the twin design.     

Children's Interpretations of Ambiguous Provocation From Their Siblings: Comparisons With Peers and Links to Relationship Quality

This study investigated how six‐ to eight‐year‐old children interpret ambiguous provocation from their siblings. In particular, we examined how children's attributions of their siblings' intent (1) differed from those for their peers, (2) varied as a function of the structural features of the sibling relationship, and (3) were associated with the affective qualities of the sibling relationship. A total of 121 children were presented with ambiguous provocation scenarios in which three groups of agemates were described as the perpetrators of harm (siblings, friends, and disliked peers). Scenarios were designed to assess children's attributions of hostile, instrumental, and accidental intent. Children attributed more hostile intent to disliked peers than to siblings and less hostile intent to friends than to siblings. Accidental and instrumental intent attributions were equally likely for friends and siblings but less common for disliked peers. Children attributed more hostile intent to older siblings, and more instrumental intent to laterborn siblings who were chronologically younger. Children's attributions of siblings' intent were related to both parents' and children's reports of the affective features of siblings' interactions. Results provide new insight into how children's construals of others' actions are grounded in the unique features of their relationships with particular interaction partners.     

‘It's so much better than contact’: A qualitative study exploring children and young people's experiences of a sibling camp in the United Kingdom

This article explores children and young people's experiences of a sibling camp based in the United Kingdom. Sibling camps are an intervention based on children's activity holidays that aim to promote meaningful contact for siblings separated in public care. This study adopted a qualitative approach using semi‐structured interviews with 11 children and young people; this included one sibling group of three and four sibling groups of two. The children's ages ranged from 8 to 17 years old, and they had all attended at least one camp with their sibling. Findings highlighted how the children valued the extended time they could spend with their siblings at camp, and how they felt this enabled them to better understand their siblings and improve their relationships. Findings also showed how the children developed close supportive relationships with the staff at the camps, who ensured they were cared for, and they also supported them with managing their relationships, which some participants acknowledged at times could be challenging. The participants also valued spending time with other sibling groups who also experienced separation. The study found camps provided a space for these children to maintain links with their siblings and to strengthen their sibling bonds.     

‘An Earthquake Shocked Up the Land!’ Children's Communication During Play With Siblings and Friends

The construction of shared meanings strategies (e.g., introductions, extensions) and use of internal state language (e.g., references to mental states) during play were examined across two relationship contexts (siblings and friends) in 65 focal kindergarten‐aged children (M age = 56.4 months; SD = 5.71 months). Strategies to construct shared meanings were associated with play session; specifically focal children employed introductions more often with their siblings whereas positive/neutral responses and prosocial strategies were used more frequently with their friends. Findings regarding birth order position indicated that older focal children were more likely to engage in non‐maintenance (e.g., negative) behaviors and explanations with their siblings whereas younger focal children employed extensions of play ideas more often with their siblings than friends. Associations between shared meaning strategies and internal state language were positively correlated across both relationship contexts, with more significant associations found in the sibling play session. Findings highlight the high level of sophisticated play interaction among children during play; these interactions were rich and varied and are discussed in light of recent research and theory.     

The interplay of friends and parents in adolescents’ daily lives: Towards a dynamic view of social support

This daily diary study investigated the interplay of perceived friend and parent support in adolescents’ everyday lives. Specifically, we tested the interactive effects of friend and parent support on adolescent well‐being at both the intra‐ and inter‐individual level. A diverse sample of 119 adolescents (M_age = 15.36) completed diary reports for 2 weeks. Multivariate multilevel models demonstrated that on days adolescents felt more supported by their friends or parents, they experienced increases in their happiness and social connectedness. Additionally, parent support emerged as a protective factor for youth lacking friend support, although patterns differed at the intra‐ vs. inter‐individual level. The findings underscore the dynamic nature of social support in adolescents’ daily lives and highlight the interactive roles of friends and parents in promoting youth well‐being.     

Closeness in Young Adult Sibling Relationships: Affective and Physiological Processes

What aspects of the relationships of young adult siblings are related to closeness or distance? This study takes a process approach to answering this question, contrasting it with the status approach of family structure variables. Close and distant sibling pairs were compared on physiological variables and specific aspects of warmth, con-flict, and power during two conversations - one on enjoyable topics and one on topics of disagreement. While there was no evidence that sibling closeness was related to family structure variables, differences in closeness were found in affective patterns and physiological responses during sibling interaction. Interaction between close sib-lings was characterized not only by higher positive affect but also by fewer power struggles and lower heart rate reactivity. Close siblings also had higher scores on emotional empathy and cognitive aspects of empathy such as perspective-taking than distant siblings. The developmental importance of considering power struggles in young adult sibling relationships was also discussed.     

Sibling Relationships and Social-emotional Adjustment in Different Family Contexts

The aims of this study were to examine family type (nonstep, stepfather, stepmother, and single mother) and sibling type (full‐ and half‐siblings) differences in sibling relationship quality (positivity and negativity), and to investigate links between sibling relationship quality and child externalizing and internalizing problems. The sample included 192 families with a 5‐year‐old target child and an older sibling. In addition, 80 of these families included a third older child. Mothers and the older siblings (8 years and older) completed questionnaires and interviews regarding conflict and support in their sibling relationships, and parents and teachers reported on each child's social‐emotional adjustment. Sibling negativity (conflict, aggression) was highest in single‐mother families and full‐siblings were more negative than half‐ and stepsiblings. There was some evidence that sibling antagonism was associated with more child behavioral and emotional problems, but these effects were moderated by family type.     

Missing siblings: seeking more adequate social responses

Little is known about the experience of family and friends when a young adult goes missing, less is known about how siblings make sense of the experience. Police assistance to locate the missing person may be sought but there is little recognition of going missing or missingness as a social issue, and there is little or no adequate social response to the needs of those left behind. This paper links knowledge of siblings, loss and grief to an understanding of this phenomenon. It presents the methodology and findings of an exploratory, qualitative study into the experiences of nine adult siblings of long-term missing people in Australia and presents the themes drawn from their accounts. The themes are briefly elaborated using direct quotations from participants in the study and represented in a diagram. The paper seeks to develop greater understanding of the inter-relationship between missingness and other social issues, to give voice to the views of participants and to encourage practitioners to engage more purposefully in work with family and friends affected by this issue. Some implications for social work practice are presented.     

Shared Understanding of Parental Differential Treatment in Families

This study examined the extent to which children and parents have concordant views about parental differential treatment (PDT) and whether such concordance is linked with variations in sibling relationship quality. Seventy‐four 11‐ to 13‐year‐old children, their older siblings, and their parents were interviewed about their experiences with PDT and the quality of the children’s sibling relationships. Levels of agreement about the magnitude, direction, and fairness of PDT were generally low to moderate. However, sibling agreement about the magnitude of parental differential affection and the fairness of maternal control and affection were associated with more positive sibling relationships. Whereas family members were more likely to agree that parental behaviors were fair when they were concordant about the extent to which differential affection occurred, agreement about controlling behaviors was associated with lower levels of agreement about fairness. In addition, the frequency of family discussions about parental behaviors was not linked to shared perceptions of fairness. Results emphasize that capturing the multiple perspectives of family members is crucial for obtaining a comprehensive portrayal of family relationships.     

Differing Domains of Actual Sibling Conflict Discussions and Associations with Conflict Styles and Relationship Quality

Four types of sibling conflict were identified in actual adolescent sibling discussions: equality and fairness, invasion of the personal domain, intrinsic harm, and relationships. Older [M = 14.97, standard deviation (SD) = 1.69 years] and younger siblings (M = 12.20, SD = 1.90 years) from 144 dyads discussed conflicts during a semi‐structured conflict task. Trained observers coded the topics discussed, and separate observers rated their conflict styles, whereas siblings rated their relationship quality. The proportion of conflicts of each domain differed by dyadic gender composition. Equality and fairness conflicts (and invasion of the personal domain conflicts for sister–sister pairs) were discussed the most frequently whereas intrinsic harm conflicts were associated with destructive conflict styles. Siblings' discussions of conflicts involving intrinsic harm were associated with older siblings' reports of negative relationship quality. The associations between these conflict topics and negative relationship quality were mediated by the siblings discussing the conflicts in destructive ways.     

Sibling coalitions in the context of parental child maltreatment

Child maltreatment (CM) is a social and public health issue with a high global prevalence. However, sibling dynamics in the context of CM remain understudied. The present study aims to shed light on sibling relationships in the context of parental CM. The sample included 20 Israeli adult CM survivors who grew up with at least one sibling. In-depth interviews explored their experiences as children, with a focus on their relationship with their siblings. A thematic analysis identified the main theme of the formation, or lack thereof, of sibling coalitions in childhood and adulthood. Some participants described comforting and protective sibling relationships in childhood, whereas others told of conflictual or distant childhood relationships that developed into adulthood alliances. Others described perpetrating parents who attempted to disrupt the sibling relationship. The sibling relationship comprises complex dynamics and emotions, which can vary within a single sibling subsystem. The findings highlight the need to examine sibling dynamics throughout the lifespan and their relation to CM survivors' wellbeing. Regarding the spillover and compensation hypotheses, there is a need to explore the role of the perpetrating parent and their attempts to sabotage the sibling dynamic.     

“The chug is coming through!” “There's two chuggas!”: A longitudinal study of the social function of imitation in children's play with siblings and friends

Imitation is argued to have an important affiliative function in social relationships. However, children's tendency to imitate different play partners during naturalistic play and associations with social understanding have been overlooked. We investigated the frequency and context of imitation in a longitudinal study of 65 focal children (T1: M age = 56.4 months, SD = 5.71) during play with their older or younger sibling and a friend in two separate play sessions. Children were observed again approximately 3 years later (T2: n = 46, M age = 94.6 months; SD = 6.6). We coded focal children's verbal and nonverbal imitation of their play partner, their partner's response to being imitated, the context in which imitation occurred (e.g., pretense), and the focal child's social understanding (i.e., mental state references). Verbal imitation occurred more often than nonverbal imitation and was used most often during the contexts of play negotiations and pretense. Although focal children's imitation of both their siblings and friends increased significantly over time, children imitated friends more than siblings at T1. All play partners responded positively (i.e., smiling, laughing) most often to being imitated. Associations between focal child imitation and mental state talk with friends at T2 approached significance. Our findings provide a deeper understanding of the nature of imitation during children's play interactions and support assertions that imitation is a process whereby children build affiliation, mutuality, and shared meanings in their relationships.     

Stability and Variability of Adolescents' Affiliation with Delinquent Friends: Predictors and Consequences

The effects of stability versus change in adolescents' affiliation with delinquent or nondelinquent friends over a two-year period (T1–T2) on delinquent behavior one year later (T3) were examined. In addition, T1 predictors of stability and change in the affiliation with delinquent or nondelinquent friends from T1 to T2 were assessed. Participants were 152 adolescents (77 girls, mean age 12.1 years at T1). Friends' delinquent behavior was assessed through friends' self-reports. The T1 predictor variables included adolescents' own delinquent behavior, attitude toward delinquent behavior, and parental monitoring. Adolescents' friendship affiliations at T2, but not at T1, predicted delinquent behavior at T3, suggesting a recency effect of friendship affiliation. Attitude toward delinquent behavior at T1 was the main predictor of stability versus change in adolescents' affiliation with delinquent or nondelinquent friends from T1 to T2.