Mobile Livelihoods: The Sociocultural Practices of Circular Migrants between Puerto Rico and the United States1

This article focuses on the bilateral flow of people between Puerto Rico and the United States ‐ what has come to be known as circular, commuter, or revolving‐door migration. It documents the migrants' livelihood practices based on a recent field study of population flows between Puerto Rico and the mainland. Specifically, the basic characteristics of multiple movers, one‐time movers and nonmovers residing in Puerto Rico are compared. More broadly, the article assesses the implications of circular migration for Puerto Rican communities on and off the island. The author's basic argument is that the constant displacement of people ‐ both to and from the island ‐ blurs the territorial, linguistic, and juridical boundaries of the Puerto Rican nation. As people expand their means of subsistence across space, they develop multiple attachments to various localities. In the Puerto Rican situation, such mobile livelihoods are easier to establish than in other places because of the free movement of labor and capital between the island and the mainland. The author hypothesizes that circulation does not entail major losses in human capital for most Puerto Ricans, but rather often constitutes an occupational, educational, and linguistic asset.     

Changes in the characteristics of Puerto Rican migrants from 1955 to 1980

"This article tests the assumption that recent cohorts of migrants from Puerto Rico to the United States are a more select portion of the population, i.e., more educated and professional, than earlier cohorts. In this analysis, the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of three cohorts of Puerto Rican migrants over the last 30 years are compared utilizing data from the 1960, 1970, and 1980 censuses."     

The migratory impact of minimum wage legislation: Puerto Rico, 1970-1987

"This study examines the impact of minimum wage setting on labor migration. A multiple time series framework is applied to monthly data for Puerto Rico from 1970-1987. The results show that net emigration from Puerto Rico to the United States fell in response to significant changes in the manner in which minimum wage policy was conducted, particularly after 1974. The extent of commuter type labor migration between Puerto Rico and the United States is influenced by minimum wage policy, with potentially important consequences for human capital investment and long-term standards of living."     

Consequences of return migrant status for employment in Puerto Rico

"At the aggregate level, return migrants in Puerto Rico in 1970 and 1980 faced greater employment-related difficulties, as compared with nonmigrants. This article explores the individual-level relationship of return migrant status to employment outcomes. The conceptual framework takes into consideration local and regional contextual factors, particularly the employment conditions prevailing in Puerto Rico during this period. Within this framework, specific hypotheses suggest a negative influence of return migrant status.... The findings substantiate the hypotheses for both census years and indicate the importance of the duration of residence in the United States and the timing of the return move as mediating factors."     

Geographical differentials in the socioeconomic status of Puerto Ricans: human capital variations and labor market characteristics

"This article examines the role of human capital and labor market characteristics in explaining geographical and individual differentials in socioeconomic outcomes of Puerto Rican women [in the United States]. The better socioeconomic performance of Puerto Ricans outside the Northeast can be in part related to their larger amount of human capital. Labor market characteristics also play a role, but their effects are generally small. Net of other characteristics, Northeast residence reduces labor force participation, increases female headship, but reduces welfare use. Of all groups examined, recent migrants from Puerto Rico located in the Northeast show the poorest socioeconomic outcomes."     

Residential Segregation on the Island: The Role of Race and Class in Puerto Rican Neighborhoods

In this paper, we use racial data from Census 2000, available for the first time in 50 years, to examine the links among race, socioeconomic status, and residential location on the island of Puerto Rico. Puerto Ricans overwhelmingly chose white as their race, and they chose only one race, not a combination of races that would seem more in keeping with the ideology of mestizaje. Overall, segregation by race is modest compared with residential segregation in the United States. In keeping with the Puerto Rican claim that class is more important than race, we find that segregation by race is generally lower than segregation between the lowest and highest income categories in all metro areas, but that the results for education and occupational status differ by metropolitan area. In San Juan-Bayamón, the most diverse metropolitan area on the island, we find that as percent black increases, neighborhood socioeconomic status decreases, though the changes are not that stark, except in Loiza, a community of black Puerto Ricans and in some Dominican neighborhoods, though there are relatively few of these neighborhoods.     

Reintegration of circulating families in southwestern Puerto Rico

Puerto Rican migration to the US has been a more or less continuous process since 1917. The perspective of viewing return migration as a circulation process suggests that there are entries, exits, and reintergration into the metropolitan labor market. This study explores the circulatory movements of Puerto Rican families, events that influence the adaptation process when returning to Puerto Rico, and cultural identity aspects. Data collected by means of 2 research instruments that were administered to the respondents simultaneously were used: 1) a life history matrix and 2) an open-ended questionnaire. These interviews outlined the principal problems of adaptation as mentioned by the circulating migrants. The most difficult problems to adjust to were economic and employment (58%), followed by social acceptance (23%), education (17%), and language (15%). Transportation, medical services, and recreational facilities were also problems mentioned as being significant. It is expected that a great majority of migrant laborers will go to live in immigrant residential locations in large US cities. It is also expected that these migrants will meet with certain value conflicts by living in urban ghettos. These families will have serious difficulties finding economic stability and will possibly consider migrating once again as an alternative to their social reality. This study illustrates that: 1) the migrants return in family groups; 2) they face discriminatory problems in employment agencies and schools; 3) they look forward to a formal education as a means of social mobility; 4) they identify themselves with values, habits, and Puerto Rican traditions; and 5) they value the quality of life in Puerto Rico.     

Migration, social support and perinatal health: an origin-destination analysis of Puerto Rican women

Using pooled origin-destination data from the Puerto Rican Maternal and Infant Health Study, we investigate linkages between migration, social support, and perinatal health. We document differences in social support between three groups of Puerto Rican women: non-migrant women in Puerto Rico, first-generation migrants to the U.S. mainland, and mainland-born women. The role of social support in producing differences in perinatal health outcomes between the groups is assessed. The analysis shows striking differences in social support between island and mainland women, but little systematic variation among mainland women by generation of U.S. residence. The lower level of social support available to mainland women is not reflected in the health outcomes examined, which do not generally worsen with migration to the United States (with the exception of maternal smoking). Nonetheless, we show that social support has important implications for stress, which in turn increases the risk of poor health behavior and compromised infant health.     

Migration in a small semiperiphery: the movement of Puerto Ricans and Dominicans

"This article argues that the semiperipheral development of Puerto Rico since around 1975 has led to the creation of a relative labor surplus in the formal sectors of the economy while at the same time increasing the demand for cheap labor in the informal service sector. Thus, Puerto Ricans leave their country in search of good jobs in the United States while Dominicans migrate to Puerto Rico and find work in the informal sector. The return migration of Puerto Ricans has also been significant, but is due to their strong national culture, rather than economic reasons. The article concludes that migration to and from Puerto Rico is of a semiperipheral type because it combines characteristics of migration previously described as 'migration from the periphery to the center' and 'migration within the periphery.' A precise definition of the semiperipheral characteristics of Puerto Rico is given."     

STRUGGLES OF INCORPORATION AMONG THE PUERTO RICAN MIDDLE CLASS

In this article I examine the settlement experiences of middle-class Puerto Ricans in the U.S. mainland. Data for the study come from open-ended interviews with 40 middle-class Puerto Ricans who came to the U.S. mainland, 20 of whom remained and 20 of whom returned and resettled in Puerto Rico. I examine their subjective interpretations of incorporation and the conditions under which they resettle in Puerto Rico. Findings reveal that in spite of occupational and economic integration into the U.S. mainstream, migration and U.S. settlement result in dislocations among Puerto Ricans, particularly regarding separation from family and kin networks and experiences with racialization and exclusion. Puerto Ricans see themselves as members of transnational families, yet, the struggles of leading dual lives between mainland and Puerto Rican societies result in settlement decisions that reflect desires to live locally with roots in one place instead of feeling split between the two. Experiences with U.S. racism complicate these decisions. Findings illustrate the various patterns of attachments to place, or emotional embeddedness, that impact the circumstances under which Puerto Ricans engage in alternating periods of mainland and Island settlement. The implications for assimilation theories are discussed.     

Cohabitation and Children's Externalizing Behavior in Low-Income Latino Families

We consider the association of cohabitation experience with externalizing behavior among children of Latina mothers whose ethnic origin is in Mexico, Puerto Rico, or the Dominican Republic. Data were drawn from three waves of the Three-City Study (N=656 mother-child pairs). Children of Mexican-origin mothers had higher externalizing problems in childhood and adolescence when their mothers were born in the United States or immigrated as minors. For children of Caribbean-origin mothers, being born to a cohabiting or married mother had a statistically equivalent association with externalizing behavior when mothers were born outside the mainland United States (Dominican and island-born Puerto Rican mothers). Children of mainland-born Puerto Rican mothers had more behavior problems when their mothers cohabited at birth.     

The circular migration of Puerto Rican women: towards a gendered explanation

"The purpose of this paper has been to outline a theoretical framework for the explanation of the circulation of Puerto Rican women that brings gender relations to the fore, but frames the island-mainland pattern of mobility in the context of core-periphery capitalist relations. We have argued that gender relations in the home and workplace are vitally important for understanding women's moves to the [United States] and return trips to Puerto Rico. Specifically, we posited that most Puerto Rican women move as tied-migrants or because of their obligation or desire to meet gender responsibilities. In addition, we also viewed migration as an action with the potential to modify gender relations and alter future migration decision-making, as women gain experience in the labour market and exposure to new social and cultural environments." (SUMMARY IN FRE AND SPA)     

The rural exodus in Mexico and Mexican migration to the United States

"During the 1950s, labor conditions in the United States attracted Mexican migrants, mostly from rural areas, in sharply fluctuating patterns of active recruitment, laissez-faire or repatriation. Because [the rural exodus and migration to the United States] have varied simultaneously and because they are interrelated, it has been assumed that the rural exodus in Mexico generally explains the flow of migrants across the border to the United States. This article argues that they must be analyzed instead as two distinct movements. Data presented show that most of the migrants created by the prevailing conditions in Mexican rural villages settle within Mexico and that only specific types of migrants are attracted over the border."     

Economic Outcomes among Latino Migrants to Spain and the United States: Differences by Source Region and Legal Status

Using representative national surveys, this paper compares economic outcomes among Latin American migrants to Spain and the United States in the first cross-national comparison using quantitative data. Considering the geographic location and social proximity of each country with respect to Latin America, we detect a critical selection effect whereby the majority of Latin American migrants to Spain originate in South America from middle class backgrounds, whereas most migrants to the United States are Central Americans of lower class origins. This selection effect accounts for cross-national differences in the probability of employment, occupational attainment, and wages earned. Despite differences in the origins and characteristics of Latino immigrants to each country, demographic and human and social capital factors appear to operate similarly in both places; and when models are estimated separately by legal status, we find that effects are more accentuated for undocumented compared with documented migrants, especially in the United States.     

On the Use of Differing Money Transmission Methods by Mexican Immigrants1

Interest in the factors shapin migrants’use of a given money transmittal method has recently intensifiled following researchers’agreement on the often inadequate infrastructure surrounding remittances transfers. This concern has also captured the attention of government officials, who appear more eager to promote more efficient and safe transfers of emigrant's earnings given the otential that remittances hold for increasing resources at the disposal of receiving nations. This study uses data from Mexican immigrants who have resided in the United States to examine the various factors that shape migrants’use of the various methods to remit earnings to Mexico. We find, not surprisingly, that accessibility factors play a key role in explaining migrants’use of the various moneytransfer mechanisms. Migrants are less likely to use banks and more likely to use nonbank money‐transmitting services when they lack immigration documents. Additionally, migrants’awareness of alternative remitting methods, either through educational attainment, skill level, or networks of friends and family in the city to which they migrated, makes them more likely to use banks relative to the more expensive nonbank money‐transmittin mechanisms. In contrast, the use of informal money transfer mechanisms (cash in the mail and hand‐carried transfers) is more likely among workers with “less regular” employment ‐ such as self‐employed and specific‐task workers, more newly arrived migrants, and migrants remitting to rural and poorer areas.     

Puerto Rican injection drug users: Prevention implications in Massachusetts and Puerto Rico

This study examines whether place of residence is a factor associated with reporting a positive HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis C (HCV), or Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) status in a sample of 400 injection drug users (IDUs) residing on the Island of Puerto Rico (N=139) and in western Massachusetts (N=261). Logistic regression models revealed that IDUs residing in western Massachusetts were 66% less likely to be HIV positive compared to IDUs residing in Puerto Rico (p<.000) while IDUs residing in western Massachusetts were about 67% less likely to have a positive STD status than those residing in Puerto Rico (p<.000). Place of residence was not significantly associated with HCV status. Results indicate the need to develop prevention programs tailored to the unique socio-cultural context of Puerto Rican IDUs residing on the Island of Puerto Rico whose circumstances differ from those in the mainland US. To reduce drug use, HIV/AIDS, HCV, and STDs among Puerto Ricans in both locales, the Capacity Enhancement Model is proposed in order to develop more effective prevention programs.     

Education,Skills, and Wage Gaps in Canada and the United States

We analyse data from the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies to reveal that immigrants in Canada and the United States make over $200 less per month than native‐born workers. In the United States, immigrants disproportionately work in low‐wage occupations, leading to large mean national differences between immigrants and native workers. The wage differential disappears after accounting for education and cognitive skills, indicating policies must focus on reducing education and skill gaps in the United States. In Canada, an immigrant wage gap persists in nearly all occupational fields, suggesting that the better skilled and educated immigrants in Canada are not receiving the same wage premium as native workers. We close with implications for policy and future research.     

Developmental well-being among low and normal birth weight U.S. Puerto Rican children

Low birth weight is a more common occurrence among Puerto Rican children than among children from most other racial and ethnic groups in the United States, and they are more likely to experience the added risk of living in poverty. This study addresses what is protective for the development 602 normal birth weight and 554 low birth weight children from the Puerto Rican Maternal and Infant Health Study. The results presented in the current analysis identify several protective influences for development (particularly maternal social support, medical insurance, and paternal employment) among low birth weight children (who are at a high risk for developmental problems), and almost none for normal birth weight children. The results largely support the contention that protective factors emerge, or increase in strength, only in the presence of risk, indicating the use of targeted child health programs based on birth weight are an effective and efficient way to improve the developmental well-being of young Puerto Rican children in the United States.     

The choice of migration destination: Dominican and Cuban immigrants to the mainland United States and Puerto Rico

"Puerto Rico provides an alternative destination for immigrants from the Spanish-speaking Caribbean because the culture is similar to that in the source country. In this study, we use the 1980 [U.S.] Census of Population to examine the importance of relative earnings and culture in the choice of destination. The main finding is the similar pattern of choice of location for immigrants from the Dominican Republic and Cuba. The more educated and more professional immigrants are found in either Puerto Rico or outside the enclave on the [U.S.] mainland. Within this group, those with less time remaining in the labor market and lower English ability are found in Puerto Rico. We find that not all differences in location decision are attributable to differences in reward structure by location."     

Language proficiency and health status: are bilingual immigrants healthier?

Bilingual immigrants appear to have a health advantage, and identifying the mechanisms responsible for this is of increasing interest to scholars and policy makers in the United States. Utilizing the National Latino and Asian American Study (NLAAS; n = 3,264), we investigate the associations between English and native-language proficiency and usage and self-rated health for Asian and Latino U.S. immigrants from China, the Philippines, Vietnam, Mexico, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. The findings demonstrate that across immigrant ethnic groups, being bilingual is associated with better self-rated physical and mental health relative to being proficient in only English or only a native language, and moreover, these associations are partially mediated by socioeconomic status and family support but not by acculturation, stress and discrimination, or health access and behaviors.