Changes in Parent,Sibling, and Peer Support During the Transition to Young Adulthood

Longitudinal trajectories of parent, sibling, and peer support during the transition to young adulthood were compared among 600 participants (51.1% female) from Asian, European, and Latin American backgrounds. Participants completed questionnaires at 12th grade, 2 and 4 years after high school. Results indicated that parent support increased across this period for participants from European backgrounds but remained stable for participants from Asian and Latin American backgrounds. Peer and sibling support remained relatively stable. Supports had specific implications for self‐esteem and depressive mood. On average, young adults with higher levels of support reported greater expectations to reciprocate support within the family. Together, these findings highlight the changing dynamics of family and friends during the transition to young adulthood.     

Multiple Social Identities and Adjustment in Young Adults From Ethnically Diverse Backgrounds

A person‐centered approach was used to determine how identification across multiple social domains (ethnic, American, family, religious) was associated with distinct identity clusters. Utilizing data from 222 young adults from European, Filipino, Latin, and Asian American backgrounds, four clusters were found (Many Social Identities, Blended/Low Religious, Blended/Low Ethnic and American, Few Social Identities). Clusters were differentially associated with adjustment, both directly and via moderation of perceived ethnic discrimination. Those with low levels of identity across all four domains reported lower positive affect, higher negative affect, lower self‐esteem, and perceived fewer American opportunities compared with individuals in other clusters. However, the Blended/Low Ethnic and American cluster exhibited more liabilities associated with discrimination. Discussion emphasizes the importance of multiple identities in development.     

Parent‐Adolescent Language Use and Relationships Among Immigrant Families With East Asian,Filipino, and Latin American Backgrounds

This study examined differences in the quality of relationships between immigrant parents and their adolescent children as a function of the languages with which they speak to one another. Over 620 adolescents with East Asian, Filipino, and Latin American backgrounds completed measures on parent‐adolescent language use and relationships. Adolescents who spoke in different languages with their parents reported less cohesion and discussion with their mothers and fathers than did their peers who spoke the same language with their parents. Adolescents who mutually communicated in the native language with their parents reported the highest levels of cohesion and discussion. Longitudinal analyses indicated that whereas language use did not predict differential changes in parent‐adolescent relationships over a 2‐year period, the quality of relationships did predict changes in language use. The associations between language use and relationships generally existed regardless of the families' ethnic and demographic backgrounds, and these associations did not vary across families of different backgrounds.     

The Relation Between Peer Victimization and Adolescents' Well‐Being: The Moderating Role of Ethnicity Within Context

This study examined the moderating effects of individual ethnicity and school ethnic composition on the relation between peer victimization and adolescents' well‐being. Participants were 4,593 sixth grade students attending 36 schools categorized as ethnically diverse or predominantly African American, European American, or Latino American. Multilevel models revealed relations between participants' ethnicity and their reported frequency of overt but not relational victimization. Findings did not support the hypothesis that adolescents in the minority group in their school would be more frequently victimized than adolescents in the majority group. Furthermore, contrary to hypothesis, the relation between the reported frequency of victimization and well‐being did not vary as a function of the interaction between adolescents' ethnicity and their schools' ethnic composition.     

Correlates in Children's Experiences of Parents' Racial Socialization Behaviors

This study examined racial socialization processes among 94 African American parents of third‐, fourth‐, and fifth‐grade children as they were predicted by children's ethnic identity exploration and unfair treatment as well as by parents' ethnic identity and discrimination experiences. Findings indicated that children's ethnic identity exploration and parents' perceptions that their children had been treated unfairly by an adult because of their race were both significantly associated with the frequency of messages to children regarding discrimination (Preparation for Bias). Parents' perceptions of children's unfair treatment from an adult and children's perceptions that they had been treated unfairly by peers were significantly associated with parents' cautions and warnings to children about intergroup relations (Promotion of Mistrust). Moreover, the influence of parents' perceptions on Promotion of Mistrust were especially pronounced when children also reported unfair treatment from adults. Children's identity exploration and unfair treatment were not associated with parents' emphasis on ethnic pride, heritage, and diversity (Cultural Socialization/Pluralism). Thus, findings suggest that parental factors are most central in the racial socialization messages that children receive. However, children's perceptions of discrimination and information seeking regarding their own history appear to have some influence on parental messages about race.     

Ethnic Peer Preferences Among Asian American Adolescents in Emerging Immigrant Communities

Growing diversity and evidence that diverse friendships enhance psychosocial success highlight the importance of understanding adolescents’ ethnic peer preferences. Using social identity and social contact frameworks, the ethnic preferences of 169 Asian American adolescents (60% female) were examined in relation to ethnic identity, perceived discrimination, and language proficiency. Adolescents with same‐ and mixed‐ethnic friends reported significantly greater ethnic centrality than those with mostly different‐ethnic friends. Adolescents with same‐ethnic friends reported significantly higher perceived discrimination and lower English proficiency than those with mixed‐ and different‐ethnic friends. Open‐ended responses were linked to quantitative data and provided further insight into specific influences on peer preferences (e.g., shared traditions, homophily). Results speak to the importance of cultural experiences in structuring the friendships and everyday lives of adolescents.     

The Postsecondary Educational Progress of Youth From Immigrant Families

Approximately 650 youth from a variety of ethnic and generational backgrounds participated in a longitudinal study of the postsecondary educational experiences of youth from immigrant families. Youth completed questionnaires and provided official school records in the 12th grade and participated in a phone interview 3 years later. Youth from immigrant families demonstrated the same level of postsecondary educational progress as their peers from American‐born families across a broad array of indicators. In addition, youth from immigrant families were more likely to support their families financially, and some were more likely to live with their parents as compared with those from American‐born families. Variability among those from immigrant families suggested that youth from families with higher incomes, higher levels of parental education, and East Asian backgrounds were more likely to enroll and persist in postsecondary schooling as compared with their peers.     

A Preliminary Analysis of Associations Among Ethnic–Racial Socialization,Ethnic Discrimination,and Ethnic Identity Among Urban Sixth Graders

Drawing from cultural ecological models of adolescent development, the present research investigates how early adolescents received ethnic–racial socialization from parents as well as how experiences of ethnic and racial discrimination are associated with their ethnic identity (i.e., centrality, private regard, and public regard). Data for this study were drawn from a multimethod study of ethnically and socioeconomically diverse early adolescents in three mid‐ to high‐achieving schools in New York City. After accounting for the influences of race/ethnicity, social class, gender, immigrant status, and self‐esteem, parental ethnic–racial socialization was associated with higher levels of ethnic centrality (i.e., the extent to which youth identify themselves in terms of their group), more positive private regard (i.e., feelings about one's own ethnic group), and public regard (i.e., perceptions of other people's perceptions of their ethnic group). Ethnic discrimination from adults at school and from peers was associated with more negative perceptions of one's ethnic group (i.e., public regard). In addition, the association of ethnic–racial parent socialization and ethnic identity beliefs was stronger for those who reported higher levels of adult discrimination. Results highlight key ways in which ethnic identity may be shaped by the social ecologies in which adolescents are embedded.     

Bisexual and homosexual behavior and HIV risk among Chinese‐, Filipino‐, and Korean‐American men

Seventy bisexually or homosexually active men primarily of Chinese‐, Filipino‐, and Korean‐American backgrounds participated in extensive interviews focusing on acculturation and sexuality. Impressionistic data showed higher involvement in gay culture than Asian culture, a shift away from the complexity of bisexual lifestyles, and two patterns of exogenous selection of male partners. The findings suggest that Asian‐American men who had sex with men were more likely than comparison groups to comply with safer sex; acculturation to Asian society enhanced this compliance, but identification with Western Protestantism, or traditional Latin homosexual roles, was related to higher risk behavior. The reported behavior of the men who had sex with both men and women did not substantiate fears that bisexuals were a conduit for transmitting the virus from the gay to the heterosexual community. Impressionistic data suggested that a combination of inaccurate information about HIV transmission, unfounded trust of partners, poor assertiveness skills, and guilt may result in sexual risk taking. Suggestions for prevention included providing explicit information in ethnic and mainstream media, emphasizing risks of heterosexual transmission, providing electronic interactive learning situations that allow privacy rather than face‐to‐face interaction, and organizing support groups that affirm the men's dual identity as Asian‐American and gay or bisexual.     

Racial/ethnic disparities in US college students’ experience: Discrimination as an impediment to academic performance

ABSTRACT

Objective and Participants: Using data from 69,722 US undergraduates participating in the spring 2015 National College Health Assessment, we examine racial/ethnic differences in students’ experience of discrimination. Method: Logistic regression predicted the experience of discrimination and its reported negative effect on academics. Additional models examined the effect of attending a Minority Serving Institution (MSI). Results: Discrimination was experienced by 5–15% of students, with all racial/ethnic minority groups examined- including Black, Hispanic, Asian, AI/NA/NA, and Multiracial students- more likely to report discrimination relative to White students. Of students who experienced discrimination, 15–25% reported it had negatively impacted their academic performance, with Hispanic and Asian students more likely to report negative impacts relative to White students. Attending an MSI was associated with decreased experiences of discrimination. Conclusion: Students from racial/ethnic minority backgrounds are disproportionately affected by discrimination, with negative impacts for academic performance that are particularly marked for Hispanic and Asian students.     

Examining Discrimination,Ethnic‐Racial Identity Status,and Youth Public Regard Among Black,Latino, and White Adolescents

How positively adolescents believe others feel about their ethnic‐racial group (i.e., public regard) is an important part of their ethnic‐racial identity (ERI), which is likely informed by contextual and individual factors. Using cluster analyses to generate ERI statuses among Black, Latino, and White adolescents (n = 1,378), we found that associations between peer versus adult discrimination and public regard varied across ERI status and ethnic‐racial group. However, among all adolescents, an achieved ERI (i.e., having explored ethnicity‐race and having a clear sense about its personal meaning) buffered the negative association between adult discrimination and public regard, but not between peer discrimination and public regard. Implications for understanding the interplay between contextual and individual factors for public regard are discussed.     

Risk Factors of Sexual Harassment by Peers: A Longitudinal Investigation of African American and European American Adolescents

The present research explores risk factors for, and longitudinal associations of, sexual harassment by peers during adolescence. Eight‐hundred and seventy‐two African American and European American adolescents (65.4% African American, 51.1% females) were assessed during the summer after the eighth grade (mean age=14.2 years) and then again in the 11th grade (mean age=17.1 years). At the first assessment, adolescents were asked about their experiences with sexual harassment, their psychological reactions to sexual harassment, and also about their peer relationships, perceived pubertal timing, problem behavior, and mental health. At the second assessment, adolescents reported on their problem behavior and mental health. In general, youth who associated with peers who were involved in problem behavior were at risk for victimization. Among females, those who perceived themselves to be experiencing early pubertal development were also at risk. Additionally, for some adolescents, sexual harassment predicted later adjustment difficulties.     

Ethnic Discrimination Among Recent Immigrant Adolescents: Variations as a Function of Ethnicity and School Context

This study examined ethnic discrimination among immigrant adolescents (N = 2,220) from seven ethnic groups who moved to Canada within the past 2 years. Among these newcomers attending 66 high schools, associations between discrimination and school context were explored, including indices of school composition and school climate. Results showed that less discrimination was reported in schools with higher proportions of same‐ethnicity peers and recent immigrants. Diversity support at school significantly predicted discrimination, beyond the effects of school composition. Ethnicity significantly moderated associations between diversity support and discrimination, indicating that the protective function of adults and peers at school differs for recent immigrants, depending on their ethnic background.     

Correlates of Ethnicity‐related Dating Preferences among Asian American Adolescents across the High School Years

Ethnicity‐related dating preferences among Asian American adolescents and the links between preferences (i.e., for a same‐ethnic dating partner) and ethnic identity centrality and regard, American identity centrality and regard, parent – adolescent closeness, and perceptions of discrimination were investigated. Data from 175 self‐identified Asian American high school students were collected yearly for four consecutive years. Higher levels of ethnic identity centrality and regard and parent – adolescent closeness averaged across four years were associated with preferring a same‐ethnic partner. Moreover, foreign‐born adolescents were less likely to prefer a same‐ethnic partner when they encountered a higher than average level of discrimination on any given year. Results highlight variability in the developmental and individual‐level factors that shape how adolescents navigate their dating relationships.     

Mexican American Parents' Involvement in Adolescents' Peer Relationships: Exploring the Role of Culture and Adolescents' Peer Experiences

This study examined the nature and correlates of Mexican American mothers' and fathers' involvement in adolescents' peer relationships along 4 dimensions: support, restriction, knowledge, and time spent with adolescents and peers. Mexican American adolescents and their parents in 220 families described their family relationships, cultural orientations/values, and experiences with adolescents' peers in home interviews. In addition, time-use data were collected during a series of 7 phone calls to measure parents' time spent with adolescents and peers and parents' knowledge of adolescents' daily experiences with peers. Multilevel models revealed connections between parents' involvement in adolescents' peer relationships and both parents' Mexican and Anglo orientations and familism values and adolescents' peer experiences (e.g., deviant peer affiliations, friends' ethnic orientation). Findings further revealed some evidence that parent and adolescent gender moderated the patterns, with mothers' (but not fathers') restrictions on peer relationships being associated with adolescents' deviant peer affiliations and parents placing greater restrictions on daughters' than on sons' peer relationships when they had more frequent deviant peer affiliations.     

Acculturation,Gender Disparity,and the Sexual Behavior of Asian American Youth

Asian American youth are less likely to be sexually active than adolescents from other ethnic groups; however, with acculturation, they may adopt the more liberal sexual norms of American society. Moreover, owing to differing parental expectations for sons and daughters about sexuality, gender disparity might exist in the adoption of American sexual norms. This article used the proportional hazards model and the generalized estimating equations Poisson model to examine how acculturation influences the initiation of sexual intercourse and the number of sexual partners. The results show that acculturation leads to more liberal sexual mores among Asian American youth. However, despite what might be expected from the sexual double standard, the models show that more acculturated females, as indicated by their use of English at home, had an earlier onset of sexual intercourse and a higher number of sexual partners. This is the opposite of what would be predicted by the sexual double standard theory. This might be due to the fact that Asian females tend to be more socially accepted by the host society than Asian males. Information on partners shows that Asian American females have more diversified racial backgrounds than their male counterparts. They are also more likely to have older sexual partners.     

Developmental Characteristics of African American and Caribbean Black Adolescents' Attributions Regarding Discrimination

The present study examined discrimination attributions in the psychological well‐being of Black adolescents. Findings are based on a representative sample of 810 African American and 360 Caribbean Black youth, aged 13–17, who participated in the National Survey of American Life. Youth completed measures of perceived discrimination, discrimination attributions, depressive symptoms, self‐esteem, and life satisfaction. Approximately half the youth attributed discrimination to race/ethnicity (43%), followed by age (17%), physical appearance (16.5%), and gender (7.5%), and there were no ethnic, gender, or age differences regarding discrimination attributions. Key findings suggest that the association between perceived discrimination and psychological well‐being did not vary according to discrimination attribution, which implies that discrimination is harmful for Black youth regardless of the attribution.     

Ethnic Identity,Self-Esteem,and Interpersonal Relationships Among Multiethnic Adolescents

A sample of 70 multiethnic adolescents (22 Asian/white, 23 black/white, 25 latino/white adolescents) were surveyed regarding their ethnic identification, self-esteem, and familial and peer relationships. The adolescents identified as multiethnic and reported feeling a high degree of comfort and acceptance in bothh white majority and ethnic minority communities. An average level of self-esteem was found. The relationship bonds were strong with both sides of the family, although somewhat stronger with the family of the minority parent. The adolescent reported feeling accepted by both white majority and ethnic minority peers, but indicated a preference for an ethnically diverse group of friends.     

Contributions of Divergent Peer and Parent Sexual Messages to Asian American College Students' Sexual Behaviors

Receiving more parent sexual communication is generally linked to a later age of first sexual intercourse and less sexual risk taking. However, Asian American youth report minimal parent sexual communication, later sexual initiation, and fewer sexual risks than their counterparts. What contributes to this unexpected pattern of sexual communication and sexual behaviors? To answer this question, we surveyed 312 Asian American college students ages 17 to 22 on their sexual behaviors, parent sexual communication, and peer sexual communication. Assessment of parent and peer sexual communication was completed via a measure in which participants rated the frequency with which they had received each of 22 sexual messages from each source. Young women generally received more messages promoting abstinence, traditional sex roles, and sex within a relational context than their male counterparts. Young men, however, reported greater parent and peer communications that were accepting of casual sex. Exposure to peer messages that were accepting of casual sex was associated with more sexual partners, casual sex encounters, and sexual experience. Being older, being raised outside the United States, being less religious, and being homosexual was each predictive of more sexual experience. Implications regarding the role of culture and gender on sexual socialization are discussed.     

Sexual‐Minority and Heterosexual Youths' Peer Relationships: Experiences,Expectations, and Implications for Well‐Being

The current study compared the peer relationships and well‐being of 60 sexual‐minority (i.e., nonheterosexual) and 65 heterosexual youths between the ages of 15 and 23. Sexual‐minority youths had comparable self‐esteem, mastery, and perceived stress as did heterosexuals, but greater negative affect. Younger sexual‐minority male adolescents had smaller overall peer networks than did young male heterosexuals, whereas older male and female sexual minorities had larger numbers of extremely close friends within their networks than did heterosexuals. Younger sexual‐minority adolescents had lost or drifted away from more friends than did heterosexuals. Regardless of age, sexual‐minority youths reported disproportionately high worries about losing friends, low feelings of control in their romantic relationships, and fears of never finding the type of romantic relationship they wanted. Sexual‐minority youths that were “out” to more heterosexual peers had larger peer networks but more friendship loss and friendship worries. Youths' relationship experiences and concerns mediated sexual identity differences in negative affect.