Who uses child care subsidies? Comparing recipients to eligible non-recipients on family background characteristics and child care preferences

The federally funded, state-administered child care subsidy program provides subsidies to low-income families. Despite being among the government's most significant investments in early care and education, recent national estimates suggest that fewer than 30% of eligible families receive subsidies and the predictors of subsidy receipt remain poorly understood. This study investigates the predictors of subsidy receipt among eligible families, with data drawn from the nationally representative Early Childhood Longitudinal Study — Birth Cohort (ECLS-B). Using logit regression models, we compare subsidy recipients to the eligible non-recipients of subsidies as a group, and then classified by the type of care the non-recipients do use: Head Start, public pre-kindergarten, or unsubsidized care. Results indicate that subsidy recipients are generally more advantaged than the eligible non-recipients of subsidies. In particular, subsidy recipients have more resources and fewer hassles than eligible non-recipients. These findings can aid state subsidy administrators in more effectively targeting their outreach and enrollment efforts and ultimately in increasing the use of this important program.     

Effects of Employment-Based Programs on Families by Prior Levels of Disadvantage

This study examines how welfare and employment policies affect subpopulations of low-income families that have different levels of initial disadvantage. Education, prior earnings, and welfare receipt are used to measure disadvantage. The analysis of data from experiments suggests that employment-based programs have no effects on economic well-being among the least-disadvantaged low-income, single-parent families, but they have positive effects on employment and income for the most-disadvantaged and moderately disadvantaged families. These programs increase school achievement and enrollment in center-based child care of children only in moderately disadvantaged families. The most-disadvantaged families are found to increase use of child care that is not center based. Parents in these families experience depressive symptoms and aggravation. The findings raise questions about how to support families at the lowest end of the economic spectrum.     

Using Policy-Relevant Administrative Data in Mixed Methods: A Study of Employment Instability and Parents’ Use of Child Care Subsidies

In the United States, government subsidies help low-income families pay for child care when parents are working, yet policies that tie subsidy eligibility closely to employment may result in frequent disruptions in program participation for families. This paper uses a mixed methods research design that links administrative records on families and children to data collected through surveys and in-depth interviews to examine employment instability and job characteristics of parents using child care subsidies. The results suggest that parents experience substantial employment instability (employment loss and unpredictable schedules) and that exiting the subsidy program is frequently related to employment-related eligibility factors. Overall, the use of administrative data integrated with other methods provides substantial opportunities for researchers to explore complex social phenomenon and provide insights in the evaluation of social programs.     

Early childhood education and care use: Differences by race/ethnicity and age

This article describes factors that predict the use of early childhood education and care among Latino families, as compared to non-Latino black and non-Latino white families in the United States in two age groups (0–2 and 3–5 years old). Using National Household Education Survey data, this study presents a framework and examines the association of numerous child and family characteristics with the number of hours children spend in care, the number of care arrangements, and the type of care used. Multinomial logit results show that once preexisting differences between Latino and black families and between Latino and white families are equalized, differences in the type of care are often eliminated. Findings suggest that the observed enrollment patterns of Latino children are due in part to their over-representation in families that are poorer, have lower levels of maternal education, and have lower levels of maternal employment.     

Is stability always a good thing? Low-income mothers' experiences with child care transitions

Recent research has drawn attention to the deleterious effects of instability on child development. In particular, child care instability may make it hard for children to form secure attachments to their care providers which may have a negative impact on their development and school readiness. These effects seem to be heightened for low-income children and families. However, there remains a lack of clarity regarding how and why low-income mothers make changes to their child care arrangements. Using ethnographic data from Welfare, Children, and Families: A Three City Study, this study explored 36 low-income mothers' experiences of child care instability and stability and the factors that promoted each. We identified four kinds of child care transitions: planned, averted, failed, and forced. Financial resources, transportation and the availability of care during the hours that mothers work were important for helping mothers find and maintain preferred care arrangements. Our findings have implications for research on child care instability as well as the development of policy and programs to help low-income families secure high quality child care and maintain stable employment.     

Low-Income Children's Participation in a Public Health Insurance Program in Georgia

To expand health care coverage to uninsured, low-income children, the Congress created the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) in 1997. Given ample evidence that state Medicaid programs have failed to enroll many eligible children, experts questioned whether SCHIP could successfully enroll low-income children. Using Georgia state SCHIP data, we analyzed enrollment patterns and identified factors contributing to program enrollment. This study found that the children's enrollment is explained by perceived costs and benefits of joining the program as well as the underlying family structure, demographic factors, and health status. We discuss implications of these findings on the participation of low-income families in public sector programs.     

Child care policy: A need for greater advocacy

While some scholars have recognized the importance of child care to families in the United States (Kamerman, 2001; Waldfogel, 1998), child care has not been viewed as a core social policy concern in the United States. In this article, we provide an overview of child care needs in the U.S. followed by an analysis of three major federal programs that shape U.S. child care policy. The first, the Child Care Development Fund (CCDF), provides financial child care supplements to low-income parents to enable them to engage in paid labor. The second policy, The Family Medical Leave Act (FMLA), is technically a universally applicable policy enabling people to care for a family member in need, including all parents who choose to spend a few weeks of unpaid leave with a newborn child. The third is the U.S. tax policy, including child care exemptions, deductions and credits. We suggest that, though all of these policies exist to help families care for children, they fail the children and families that they are purportedly designed to help. We then discuss the crucial role that professionals who work with families and children can play in shaping U.S. child care policies.     

Enrollment Decisions in a Child Development Accounts Program for Low-Income Families

This exploratory study analyzed factors that influenced parental decision to enroll in a child development accounts program for their pre-school children’s college education. Data used is from a savings demonstration program in a Midwestern U.S. state. Of the individual, household and service-level variables, only the level of parent’s education and the program orientation about the accounts offered to parents were significantly associated with enrollment decision. Analyzed variables explained 79.0% of the decision to enroll. Results provide limited support for an institutional mechanism to help low-income families participate in child development savings accounts program. Implications are directed towards program and policy implementation of similar programs.     

Understanding churn: Predictors of reentry among families who leave the child care subsidy program in Maryland

Child care subsidies provide an important work support for low-income families, yet children often receive subsidies for only a short period of time and may cycle on and off the program. Much of the research to date on patterns of subsidy participation has focused on the duration of participation, and less attention has been paid to the dynamics of how often and how quickly children return to the program. This paper uses administrative data from Maryland to analyze the patterns of returns to the subsidy program after a break in subsidized care. We find that half of children who exited the program return to subsidy within five years, and most of those return within a few months. Returns to subsidized care are related to family circumstances, type of care, child age, and program policies related to eligibility redetermination. These factors have differential effects on the probability of returning to the same provider or a different provider, which may have important implications for the stability of children's care.     

Family life education for day care programs serving the black community

The increase in working mothers has led to a growing demand for day care cross-culturally. Attitudes and opinions vary in regard to the necessity of parental involvement in these programs. However, to foster development of the “whole” child, meaningful and shared communication must exist between the parents of preschool children and their caretakers. The Family Life Education discussion ρoup is a form of social work intervention developed around the life tasks facing families and individuals. This article explores the use of such groups in conjunction with day care programs serving black children from low-income families.     

Child care burden and the risk of child maltreatment among low-income working families

Studies suggest that a substantial proportion of low-income working mothers experience work disruptions and parental stress related to child care, which may lead to increases in the risk of physical and psychological abuse and neglect of children. However, little research has examined the relationship between child care burden and the risk of child maltreatment among low-income working families. Using the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study 3-year data, this study explores how child care burden is associated with the risk of child maltreatment (physical aggression, psychological aggression, and neglectful behavior) among low-income working mothers. We find that instability in child care arrangements is likely to increase mothers' physical and psychological aggression, while not having someone reliable for emergency child care is likely to increase mothers' neglectful behaviors. Findings also show that the risk of child maltreatment related to child care burden measures is more significant for single mothers than married mothers. Potential policy implications are discussed.     

Increasing access to quality child care for children from low-income families: Families' experiences

Identifying effective strategies for increasing access to quality care for children from low-income families has important implications for society. This study examined the effectiveness of expanding child care assistance for low-income families (capping expenses at 10% of income and raising eligibility to 200% of the federal poverty line) to purchase quality care. Mixed methods documented families' experiences (N = 181) and capitalized on a natural experiment when families lost assistance. Results pointed to improved access to quality care for children from low-income families by: 1) helping low-income families continue utilizing quality providers when incomes dropped, and 2) enabling others to begin utilizing quality providers. Perceived impacts were greatest for families with higher incomes (within the eligibility range), and for those with children ages five and younger. Additionally, parents were able to pay providers the full rate that they charge for care, which may help quality providers continue serving low-income families.     

Predictors of public early care and education use among children of low-income immigrants

Little is known about predictors of publicly funded early care and education (ECE) use among low-income children of immigrants. Without this knowledge, it is difficult to effectively increase participation in these public programs, which promote school readiness but are underused by children of immigrants. Using nationally representative data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), this study attempts to identify pertinent family, child, maternal ECE preference, broader contextual, and immigrant specific characteristics predictive of ECE use among 4-year-old children in a sample of low-income children of immigrants (N ≈ 1050). Specifically, we estimate multinomial logistic regression models predicting type of ECE (Head Start, public pre-k, subsidized ECE, unsubsidized ECE, parental care) from these characteristics. Findings suggest that even in a low-income sample, correlates of disadvantage such as low maternal education and prior receipt of public benefits are important predictors of public ECE use, as are maternal preferences for certain features of care and supply-side factors such as ECE availability. Immigrant-specific factors such as English proficiency, citizenship status, availability of non-English speaking caregivers, and generosity of state policies toward immigrants emerged as particularly salient for explaining the public ECE selection patterns of low-income immigrants. Results point to future research areas and potential policy solutions aimed at increasing public ECE use for children who may stand to benefit the most.     

Investments in young children among low-income families

This article examines low-income parents’ monetary investments in their young children, asking how low-income families are able to afford spending on children. We investigate parental spending on child care and on goods in the home that may provide enrichment for young children. We find little evidence that households make spending trade-offs for either type of good. Instead, our results suggest that low-income households that can afford child care may be poor only temporarily and that they spend primarily when they are unable to avoid doing so because of family work patterns. For enrichment goods, parental education is a stronger predictor of spending.     

The impact of maternal education on children's enrollment in early childhood education and care

This study examined the influence of maternal education and other child and family characteristics on the enrollment of children in early childhood education and care. Data come from the National Household Education Survey for a 14-year period and include children ages 0-5 years old. Multinomial logit analysis was employed to show the effect of maternal education on the likelihood of being enrolled in a specific type of care arrangement including both formal and informal settings. Findings suggest that more advantaged children, even those under 3 years of age, enroll in higher quality settings, thereby granting them an advantage when they begin school.     

Child care services and public policy: a new perspective

A new view of early experience is emerging in the literature. The implications of this new view on public policy for early childhood services and the possible consequence of misinterpreting this new view of early experience are discussed. The paper reviews the present justifications for providing early child care services to families, the origins of these justifications and the limits they impose for providing quality early child care. The author offers a proposal for more appropriate foundation to ensure the maintenance of quality early child care programs for families.     

A qualitative look at child care selection among rural welfare-to-work participants

The welfare reforms of 1996 changed the administration of public assistance to children and families. One of the key provisions, requiring parents to join the workforce, resulted in an expanded need for child care. Prior research demonstrates that welfare recipients, particularly in rural areas, utilize informal child care arrangements. Further, recipients in rural communities face greater challenges due to a lack of transportation, geographic spread, and less access to services. This qualitative study examined the child care selection experiences of 33 welfare recipients in six rural Northern California counties. More families selected home-based than center-based child care. During their search processes, welfare recipients utilized both formal and informal routes to locate child care providers. Parents took advantage of their connections with the social service system, but also accessed their social networks for recommendations. Rural families also reported that their choices were constrained by the available programs, transportation, and by the quality of the programs they were able to access. Given the high rate of utilization of home-based arrangements among families in welfare-to-work programs, quality of care in such programs should be improved. Recommendations for increasing quality and access, as well as supports for welfare to work participants, are discussed.     

Child care assistance and nonstandard work schedules

Child care is a necessary work support for many American families, but can be prohibitively expensive for those with low incomes. The federal government provides assistance through direct child care subsidies, but only a fraction of eligible families are in receipt. One factor that may limit access to child care assistance is work schedule. Research suggests that mothers with nonstandard work schedules use relative care more and day care centers less than those with standard work schedules. Research also shows that child care subsidies are disproportionately used for day care centers. This suggests that mothers who work nonstandard schedules may be less likely to receive child care assistance, but little empirical work addresses this question directly. Using data from a cohort of urban, unmarried mothers, this study explores the direct and indirect relationship between work schedule and receipt of child care assistance. The findings suggest that nonstandard work schedules reduce the odds of receiving child care assistance; a relationship mediated entirely by less day care center use among nonstandard schedule workers. The results imply that more flexible child care assistance is needed to meet the needs of these workers, possibly provided outside of the direct-subsidy system.     

For love or money: Costs of child care by relatives

A substantial proportion of employed mothers of young children, especially low-income mothers, use relatives to provide child care. This study uses data on interhousehold exchange of gifts, loans, and household services from the National Survey of Families and Households to examine monetary and nonmonetary costs of child care by relatives. Results show that mothers who use relatives for child care are more likely to give services and to have given gifts or loans to other relatives living outside the household than mothers using other forms of child care or mothers who are not employed. Monetary payments for child care by relatives are made more often for full-time than part-time care and less often to grandparents than to other relatives providing care. Implications for government child care assistance programs are discussed. Preparation of this paper was supported in part by the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. The author acknowledges the helpful comments of Marianne Ferber, Andrea Beller, and Sharon Y. Nickols. Her research interests include issues relating to women's employment, including child care and house-hold time allocation. She received her Ph.D. in Family and Consumption Economics from the University of Illinois. Send all correspondence to author.     

Child care subsidies and childhood obesity

In this paper, we study the impact of child care subsidy receipt on low-income children’s weight outcomes in the fall and spring of kindergarten using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Cohort. Our results suggest that subsidy receipt is associated with increases in BMI and a greater likelihood of being overweight and obese. Using quantile regression methods, we find substantial variation in subsidy effects across the BMI distribution. Specifically, child care subsidies have no effect on BMI at the lower end of the distribution, inconsistent effects in the middle of the distribution, and large effects at the top of the distribution. Our results point to the use of non-parental child care, particularly center-based services, as the key mechanism through which subsidies influence children’s weight outcomes.