Colonization and habitat selection of a declining farmland species in urban areas

Despite the accelerating global urbanization and its associated implications for wildlife and humans, we know little about the biology of urban ecosystems. Here, we investigated colonization and habitat selection of the European hare (Lepus europaeus), a declining farmland species, in urban areas in Denmark, using a combination of citizen science data and transect counts. Further, we estimated the population density of urban hares in Aarhus, Denmark’s second largest city. Our results provide the first evidence that hares have established populations in urban areas, potentially in response to decreasing habitat quality in rural areas due to agricultural intensification. The hare density in Aarhus was ca. 8 hares per km², which is comparable to or slightly higher than hare abundance estimates from various pastural areas in Europe, suggesting that urban areas provide suitable habitat for hares. Hare habitat selection was generally associated with areas consisting of large lawns, such as high buildings and parks, which potentially provide high-quality forage throughout the year. Considering the increasing expansion of urban areas and deteriorating habitat quality of agricultural areas, urban planning that incorporates habitat requirements for wildlife could help to support urban animal populations, especially for species of conservation concern.

     

Nest selection by red-headed woodpeckers across three spatial scales in an urban environment

Forest habitat is important for a variety of woodpecker species, and is under pressure from urbanization. Red-headed Woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus; RHWO) were once abundant across Eastern North America, and their populations have been declining since the 1960s. Their distribution encompasses urban centers, and since urban habitats differ from natural forest areas, our goal was to understand RHWO nest-site selection in an urban context. We addressed two main questions 1) what are the characteristics of RHWO nest selection across multiple spatial scales and 2) how do RHWO nest tree characteristics in city parks compare to those in forest preserves? This work was done in Cook County, IL, which includes Chicago, the third-largest city in the USA by population. We examined 34 RHWO nest trees used between 2010 and 2013, their surrounding habitat, and the landscape within a 1 km radius. Used trees and habitats were compared to paired unused trees and habitats, and landscape-scale characteristics were compared to random locations. Advanced decay of the nest tree, low canopy cover and increased presence of fungus on trees in the surrounding habitat were the best predictors of RHWO nesting in the area. Nests were most commonly found in forested areas outside of dense urban areas. However, we did not detect significant differences in the characteristics of the nest trees located in forest preserves and city parks. Our findings are consistent with nest selection studies in rural and natural areas, suggesting that forest habitats in metropolitan landscapes can support RHWO nesting.     

A comparison of carbon and nitrogen stocks among land uses/covers in coastal Florida

Coastal areas are rapidly developing due to population growth and the appeal of coastlines. In order to gain insight into how land use/cover affects carbon (C) storage in a coastal context, we examined soil and vegetation C and soil nitrogen (N) across land uses near Apalachicola, FL. Forested wetlands had the greatest soil C and N storage, while natural pine forests and pine plantations had the least. In paired plots, urban lawns had significantly greater mineral soil N content compared to urban forest remnants. Total ecosystem C (soil + vegetation) was higher in forested wetlands than all other land uses/covers combined due to the high organic content of those wetland soils. Urban forest remnants and lawns had greater total ecosystem C than natural pine forests and pine plantations, which likely reflects the differential influence of prescribed fire and less frequent anthropogenic disturbances between the rural and urban areas, respectively. Projections of land use change in Franklin County, FL combined with these data suggest that increases in C storage are possible with continued urbanization along the Gulf Coast, if forest remnants are left and lawns are incorporated in built-up areas. However, this study does not account for C emissions during land conversion, or any emissions associated with maintaining urban built-up and residential areas. A better understanding of land use/cover influences on C pools has applications for planning and development, as well as ecological and environmental protection in the region.     

Exotic plant invasions in forested wetlands: effects of adjacent urban land use type

There are a variety of land use types in urbanized areas that may have different effects on the ecological characteristics of patches of natural vegetation. In particular, residential housing and industrial land-use may have different effects on adjacent forest communities. We tested this hypothesis by examining the vegetation of forested wetlands in a densely urban region, northeastern New Jersey. Wetlands embedded in industrial areas were much less invaded by exotic plant species than were wetlands embedded in residential areas, as reflected in the number of exotic species, the fraction of the total flora that was exotic, and their frequencies of occurrence. Few other structural characteristics of the vegetation differed between the two types of urban areas. We suggest that the management of land adjacent to forest edges may explain this surprising result. The low rate of invasion of wetlands within industrial areas suggests they could have high conservation value in urban ecosystems.     

Emerging dragonfly diversity at small Rhode Island (U.S.A.) wetlands along an urbanization gradient

Natal habitat use by dragonflies was assessed on an urban to rural land-use gradient at a set of 21 wetlands, during two emergence seasons (2004, 2005). The wetlands were characterized for urbanization level by using the first factor from a principal components analysis combining chloride concentration in the wetland and percent forest in the surrounding buffer zone. Measurements of species diversity and its components (species richness and evenness) were analyzed and compared along the urbanization gradient, as were distributions of individual species. Dragonfly diversity, species richness, and evenness did not change along the urbanization gradient, so urban wetlands served as natal habitat for numerous dragonfly species. However, several individual species displayed strong relationships to the degree of urbanization, and most were more commonly found at urban sites and at sites with fish. In contrast, relatively rare species were generally found at the rural end of the gradient. These results suggest that urban wetlands can play important roles as dragonfly habitat and in dragonfly conservation efforts, but that conservation of rural wetlands is also important for some dragonfly species.     

A conceptual framework for the study of human ecosystems in urban areas

The need for integrated concepts, capable of satisfying natural and social scientists and supporting integrated research, motivates a conceptual framework for understanding the role of humans in ecosystems. The question is how to add humans to the ecological models used to understand urban ecosystems. The ecosystem concept can serve as the basis, but specific social attributes of humans and their institutions must be added. Learning and feedback between the human and natural components of urban ecosystems are key attributes of the integrated model. Parallels with familiar ecological approaches can help in understanding the ecology of urban ecosystems. These include the role of spatial heterogeneity and organizational hierarchies in both the social and natural components of urban ecosystems. Although urban watersheds are commonly highly altered, the watershed approach can serve as a spatial basis for organizing comparative studies of ecosystems exhibiting differing degrees of urbanization. The watershed concept can also spatially organize the hierarchically scaled linkages by which the integrated human ecosystem model can be applied. The study of urban ecosystems is a relatively new field, and the questions suggested by the integrated framework can be used to frame ecosystem research in and associated with urban and metropolitan areas.     

Urban and wildland herpetofauna communities and riparian microhabitats along the Salt River, Arizona

Metropolitan areas are continually expanding, resulting in increasing impacts on ecosystems. Worldwide, riverine floodplains are among the most endangered landscapes and are often the focus of restoration activities. Amphibians and reptiles have valuable ecological roles in ecosystems, and promoting their abundance and diversity when rehabilitating riparian systems can contribute to reestablishing degraded ecosystem functions. We evaluated the herpetofauna community by measuring abundance, richness, diversity, and species-habitat relations along three reaches (wildland, urban rehabilitated, and urban disturbed reaches) varying in degree of urbanization and rehabilitation along the Salt River in central Arizona. We performed visual surveys for herpetofauna and quantified riparian microhabitat along eight transects per reach. The wildland reach had the greatest herpetofauna species richness and diversity, and had similar abundance compared to the urban rehabilitated reach. The urban disturbed reach had the lowest herpetofauna abundance and species richness, and had a similar diversity compared to the urban rehabilitated reach. Principal Component Analysis reduced 21 microhabitat variables to five factors which described habitat differences among reaches. Vegetation structural complexity, vegetation species richness, densities of Prosopis (mesquite), Salix (willow), Populus (cottonwood), and animal burrow density had a positive correlation with at least one herpetofauna community parameter, and had a positive correlation with abundance of at least one lizard species. Rehabilitation activities positively influenced herpetofauna abundance and species richness; whereas, urbanization negatively influenced herpetofauna diversity. Based on herpetofauna-microhabitat associations, we recommend urban natural resource managers increase vegetation structural complexity and woody debris to improve herpetofauna habitat when rehabilitating degraded riparian systems.     

Impacts of urbanization on palustrine (depressional freshwater) wetlands—research and management in the Puget Sound region

This paper summarizes the results of the Puget Sound Wetlands and Stormwater Management Research Program, which examined the impacts of urban stormwater on wetlands. Results are presented for data collected between 1988 and 1995 for 19 wetlands, showing changes in wetland hydrology resulting from urban conversion and the subsequent impacts on plant and amphibian communities. The amount of watershed imperviousness, the forested area, and the degree of outlet constriction were found to be the most significant factors affecting wetland hydroperiods. As hydroperiods changed, plant communities shifted towards communities adaptable to the new hydrograph. Wetlands with water level fluctuation above 20 cm resulted in lower plant richness in the emergent and scrub-shrub zones. Similarly, wetlands with water level fluctuation greater than 20 cm were significantly more likely to have low amphibian richness of three or fewer species. A primary goal of the research program was to employ the results to improve the management of both wetlands and stormwater in urban areas. Hydrologic guidelines were applied to King County's basin planning and master drainage planning efforts. Controls that focused on minimizing impervious surfaces and maximizing forest retention in the wetland watershed proved to be the most widely usable strategy.     

Conservation-priority grassland bird response to urban landcover and habitat fragmentation

As urbanization in the landscape increases, some urban centers are setting aside habitat for wildlife. This habitat may be particularly valuable to declining or conservation-priority species. One group in particular need of conservation actions that may benefit from habitat located in urban areas is grassland birds. Declines of grassland bird species have been particularly severe in the Midwestern U.S., where most grassland cover has been lost, fragmented, and surrounded by unsuitable habitat. Conservation efforts have focused on protecting large grasslands surrounded by minimal amounts of trees and development. Although urban development is considered hostile to grassland birds, this assumption has received little attention. In heavily fragmented landscapes where habitat is limited, urban grasslands may be of significant value to grassland birds. We examined grassland bird response to development and additional landscape and habitat variables in the greater Chicago metropolitan area. In 2012 and 2013, we surveyed bird communities in grassland patches along a gradient of urbanization and patch sizes. Density of Savannah Sparrows (Passerculus sandwichensis) increased with amount of development, while density of Sedge Wrens (Cistothorus platensis) decreased. Development did not appreciably impact Bobolinks (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), Dickcissels (Spiza americana), Eastern Meadowlarks (Sturnella magna), Grasshopper Sparrows (Ammodramus savannarum), or Henslow’s Sparrows (Ammodramus henslowii). Patch size had a positive effect on species densities. These results indicate that for many conservation-priority grassland birds, urban landcover surrounding grasslands generally has neutral rather than negative effects on habitat use. Therefore, grasslands in developed landscapes may provide valuable contributions to regional conservation efforts.     

Large body size for metamorphic wood frogs in urban stormwater wetlands

Constructed wetlands in urban environments may be used by urban amphibian populations for breeding. Yet, few studies have examined the performance of young-of-the-year from created wetlands even though the success of terrestrial life stages is directly linked to the performance of individuals at the egg and larval stage. We assessed how early-stage amphibians developing within constructed stormwater wetlands compared in body size (one metric of performance) to those in nearby natural wetlands. We conducted surveys for wood frog, Lithobates sylvaticus, larvae and young-of-the-year metamorphs at 13 wetlands located in the City of Edmonton, Alberta, Canada and compared metamorph size (a useful metric for fitness and reproductive success) between constructed stormwater and two types of natural wetlands. We related body size to within-wetland parameters (reflecting water chemistry, thermal regimes and physical characteristics) and used an information-theoretic approach to identify predictors of metamorph body size. Abundances of egg masses, larvae and metamorphs were generally lower at stormwater than natural wetlands. Metamorphs exhibited larger body size in stormwater wetlands compared to natural wetlands. Low metamorph abundances and cool, stable water temperatures best explained large body size in stormwater metamorphs. We propose that with increasing urbanization and associated construction of artificial wetlands, size benefits in early developmental stages may help individuals cope with reduced habitat suitability in the terrestrial environment.     

Nesting and foraging behavior of red-winged blackbirds in stormwater wetlands

Stormwater wetlands are a common part of urban and suburban landscapes. These constructed wetlands provide first-order treatment of effluent from roads, parking lots, lawns and other surfaces. They also provide habitat for wetland-associated birds. Thus, there is a concern that birds may be attracted to potentially toxic habitats. This study assesses nesting success and forging behavior of Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) in retention stormwater wetlands based on drainage type. Drainage categories included residential, commercial, and highway sites. Commercial sites had the lowest nesting success and the lowest diversity of invertebrate foods. Mean nest success values for all three types of wetlands, especially for highway drainages, were comparable to published values from natural wetlands. Over two years of study highway ponds collectively served as source populations whereas residential and commercial sites were population sinks in one year and sources in the other. Red-wings using highway sites had the highest foraging efficiency as determined by the frequency and duration of forays. Residential sites had the greatest human disturbance and generally had intermediate-quality habitat and nesting success. We conclude that while stormwater wetlands collect run off and accompanying pollutants, they can still be valuable habitats for nesting birds in urban and suburban areas. We recommend a few management strategies that can increase avian use of these habitats.     

Restoration of urban salt marshes: Lessons from southern California

Extensive restoration efforts in southern California coastal wetlands highlight several challenges for urban salt marsh restoration, including: habitat isolation and fragmentation, impacts from exotic species, the loss of transitional upland habitats, and other alterations to hydrologic and sediment dynamics. Habitat isolation impairs colonization by dispersal-limited plants, so planting becomes essential to achieve diverse salt marshes. Low species richness slows the development of salt marsh functions (e.g., biomass and nitrogen accumulation) in southern California. A variety of exotic species have invaded the upper reaches of salt marshes in southern California, most commonly in marshes with hydrological modifications. The replacement of gradual slopes between wetlands and uplands by sharp transitions abutting urban development limits our ability to restore rare plant and animal populations. Where hydrologic connections are impaired by roads and other structures, the natural migration of channels is constrained, and sediment dynamics often lead to lagoon mouth closure.A case study from Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve (hereafter, Tijuana Estuary) further illustrates a specific lesson for urban salt marsh restoration concerning watershed issues and sediment dynamics. In the south arm of Tijuana Estuary, watershed urbanization, along with local climate, topography, and soils, has resulted in extreme rates of sediment accumulation. Sedimentation rates in a salt marsh in the south arm of the estuary ranged from 10 to 30 cm over a single winter (1994–95), substantially greater than historic sedimentation rates in the estuary or rates from other coastal wetlands with storm sedimentation. Sediment buried salt marsh vegetation in place and is converting intertidal salt marsh to uplands. These impacts illustrate the need to consider watershed issues and sediment control in managing and restoring urban salt marshes.     

Human land use as a driver of plant community composition in wetlands of the Chicago metropolitan region

Anthropogenic alteration of the landscape has facilitated plant community change and non-native species invasion in urban areas. We used species occurrence data from over 2000 wetlands within the Chicago metropolitan region to classify urban wetlands into community types and examined non-native species composition across community types. Non-native species were widespread across the region, occurring in over 99% of wetlands. On average, 35% of the plant species in individual wetlands were non-native. A single non-native species, Phalaris arundinacea, was present in 74% of wetlands. Six wetland community types were identified (wet meadows, marshes, forested wetlands, farmed wetlands/mudflats, roadside marshes, and an undetermined wetland type), with each having aggressively spreading non-natives amongst the most common plant species. We conducted canonical correspondence analysis to evaluate the contribution of surrounding land cover, roads, and location of wetlands to plant community composition in these wetlands, and found that similar changes to the landscape have resulted in similar combinations of native and non-native species. Differences in species composition reflected spatial gradients in land use from urban to rural areas across the region, as well as proximity to major roads. Anthropogenic drivers have resulted in profound and pervasive changes to wetland communities across the region, creating novel habitats and ultimately novel community types.     

Amphibian use of constructed and remnant wetlands in an urban landscape

Urban areas are increasing in number, extent, and human population density worldwide. There is potential to mitigate negative impacts of urbanization to native pond-breeding amphibians by providing habitat in both remnant natural and constructed wetlands. This study examines amphibian use of potential breeding sites in natural and constructed ponds in a large metropolitan area to investigate habitat characteristics that are associated with successful breeding. I surveyed 62 ponds over three breeding seasons in Portland, Oregon, measuring eleven habitat characteristics that may influence their successful breeding: pond depth, nitrate level, aquatic refugia, aquatic vegetation, surrounding vegetation, pond permanence, presence of fish and of introduced bullfrogs, surrounding road density and forest cover, and whether they were constructed or remnant natural ponds. Five of the six native pond-breeding species that occur in the region were regularly found breeding in city ponds. Surrounding forest cover and amount of aquatic vegetation were highly associated with breeding, indicating that preserving and planting vegetation likely benefits urban amphibians. Non-native bullfrogs were not associated with native species richness. Surprisingly, whether a pond was natural or constructed was also only weakly associated with native species breeding, and the trend was towards higher presence for all species in constructed ponds. This indicates that novel, human-dominated areas can provide habitat for these species. Consideration of habitat characteristics associated with breeding success in urban pond management will likely benefit native amphibians in these rapidly expanding landscapes.     

Hadeda Ibis (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Bostrychia hagedash</Emphasis>) urban nesting and roosting sites

Hadeda Ibis (Bostrychia hagedash) have increased in population size and expanded in range in South Africa possibly as a result of increased use of exotic trees for nesting and roosting in urban areas. We investigated the urban nesting and roosting sites of the Hadeda Ibis by measuring tree height and species used by Hadeda Ibis for nesting and roosting in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We expected Hadeda Ibis nests and roosts to have habitats, like wetlands, to be within 10 km of the roost or nest tree. Hadeda Ibis nest and roost locations were mapped using ArcGIS and available resources (grasslands, wetlands, plantations, other natural water sources) 10 km around each roost and nest tree were determined. Results showed that Hadeda Ibis use exotic trees for nesting and roosting in urban areas more than indigenous trees. This may be because exotic trees are more available in urban environments, particularly those trees that have ornamental value. Hadeda Ibis did not nest and roost closer to expected resources. Although previously associated with wetlands, Hadeda Ibis in urban environments were not close to natural water sources. This can be explained by swimming pools providing accessible drinking water and well watered lawns providing suitable foraging habitat therefore allowing them to roost and nest in this urban habitat.     

Small mammal assemblages in fragmented shrublands of urban areas of Central Chile

Mediterranean-type ecosystems are one of the most affected environments by habitat loss and fragmentation due to urban development, however only few studies have evaluated the effects of urbanization on the biodiversity of remnant fragments in these ecosystems. This study aims to evaluate the effects of urban development over small mammal assemblages inhabiting isolated forest fragments of an urban area of Chilean Mediterranean zone. We compared abundance and richness of small mammal assemblages of six remnant fragments within an urban matrix, and six fragments similar in area and habitat characteristics with those of urban area, but surrounded by a rural matrix. We found that small mammal assemblages differ considerably among fragments types (urban vs rural), with lack of endemic species from urban fragments and with high proportion of introduced rodents in urban fragments. Furthermore abundance of small mammals was higher in rural than in urban fragments. In urban areas small mammal abundance and richness were not correlated with any of the explanatory variables assessed (woody cover, flora heterogeneity, fragment area, perimeter/area ratio). However in rural fragments small mammal richness was negatively correlated with flora heterogeneity and the abundance of small mammals was positively correlated with perimeter/area ratio. These results reveal important differences within the effects of fragmentation over small mammal assemblages among the two types of fragments assessed. Our findings suggest that in forest fragments isolated by urbanization, larger areas with good quality habitats are not sufficient to maintain native small mammal population.     

Coyote,fox, and bobcat response to anthropogenic and natural landscape features in a small urban area

Increasing urbanization across the southeastern United States presents unique challenges for wildlife; however certain species have learned to adapt and thrive in these environments. Coyotes (Canis latrans), bobcats (Lynx rufus), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) are four common medium-sized carnivores that have become closely associated with urban areas. The goal for this study was to determine how urban landscape features influence density and occurrence of these species in a small urban area and to evaluate if any effects were similar to those observed in larger urban areas. We conducted two eight-week camera surveys in the city of Nacogdoches, Texas (pop. 32,699) and immediate surrounding areas in summer and fall 2013. We evaluated single-season spatially explicit capture-recapture and occupancy models to estimate density, and occurrence, respectively, based on anthropogenic and natural features around each camera site. Coyotes (fall: 1.38 coyotes/km²) and bobcats (fall: 0.64 coyotes/km²) were associated with areas of green space, but their response to large and small green spaces changed seasonally. Conversely, red foxes (fall: 2.53 red foxes/km²) were more likely to occur near developed areas and were less detectable in areas with greater probability of coyote presence in fall only. In summer, gray foxes (fall: 0.05 gray foxes/km²) were more likely to occur in areas with lower building density and closer to buildings. This study indicates coyotes, foxes and bobcats respond to small-scale urbanization in a similar manner as large-scale urbanization.     

Direct and indirect effects of human population density and land use on physical features and invertebrates of Iowa (U.S.A.) streams

To improve understanding of human impacts on headwater stream condition, we quantified relationships between human, terrestrial landscape, and stream system variables in 29 central Iowa watersheds. Across study watersheds, between 0 and 100 % of total land area was characterized as “urban” (developed and barren land), whereas cultivated land constituted between 0 and 71 % of watershed area. Several variables were measured for each stream and associated watershed. Strengths of correlative relationships were used to select variables for path analysis, which we used to gain insight into factors affecting stream condition by evaluating direct and indirect effects of human system variables, terrestrial landscape variables, and physical stream variables on stream invertebrates. Results indicated that in predominantly urban watersheds, contaminant inputs to streams (measured by streamwater conductivity) negatively affected invertebrates, including EPT taxa (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera), and streamwater contaminant concentrations increased with impervious surface and human population density in the watershed. In rural watersheds, high streamwater nitrogen concentrations associated with cultivated land were related to declines in invertebrate taxon richness. Independent of land use, invertebrate abundance and taxonomic diversity were positively related to coarse substrate abundance on the streambed. Additionally, stream flow (discharge) increased with watershed area, which in turn increased invertebrate taxonomic diversity. Apparently, mechanisms responsible for human impacts on stream condition in central Iowa depend on dominant land use in the watershed. Additionally, stream ecosystems with high quality benthic habitat, and those located in large watersheds with greater flow, appear to be more resilient to land use effects.     

Relative importance of habitat quantity, structure, and spatial pattern to birds in urbanizing environments

Urbanization reduces the quantity of native vegetation and alters its local structure and regional spatial pattern. These changes cause local extirpations of bird species associated with native vegetation and increases in the abundance and number of bird species associated with human activity. We used 54–1 km² landscapes in the Seattle, Washington, USA metropolitan area to determine (1) the relative importance of habitat quantity, structure, and pattern to bird diversity and abundance and (2) whether housing developments can be managed to mitigate the negative impacts of urbanization on forest bird diversity. In general, bird species richness was high and many native forest species were retained where urban landcover comprised less than 52% of the landscape, tree density (especially that of evergreens) remained at least 9.8 trees/ha in developments, and forest was at least 64% aggregated across the landscape. These results suggest that the quantity, structure, and pattern of forested habitat affected breeding bird diversity in urbanizing landscapes. However, habitat pattern appeared less influential than other habitat attributes when results from all community- and population-level analyses were considered. Conservation of native birds in reserves can be supplemented by managing the amount, composition, structural complexity, and—to a lesser extent—arrangement of vegetation in neighborhoods.     

Sparrows in urban complexity: macro and micro-scale habitat use of sympatric sparrows in Guwahati City,India

In recent decades the House Sparrow and Tree Sparrow have suffered considerable declines. To date, little is known about the fine scale habitat selection of sparrows where they occur together. We investigated how sympatric sparrows used macro and microhabitats in the urban environment of Guwahati city. Survey of sparrows was carried out in 572 locations of different urban settings to find out the city scale distribution. We classified urban habitats and collected micro-habitat variables at 45 point count stations during 2013–2015. Urbanization gradient was found to be influential in limiting the abundance of sparrows. House Sparrow was more common within the urbanized areas compared to low settlement densities located far from the urban core. In contrast, Tree Sparrows were more scattered and seldom found in crowded areas. Spatial overlap was comparatively high in the residential areas adjacent to hillocks. At micro scale, House Sparrow had quadratic response to the degree of urbanization. Both the species avoided areas where urbanization reached the peak; specifically, the areas which were completely devoid of natural vegetation and top soil was paved, and in shopping centers with glass facades. Habitat requirements of both the species at local landscape scale seemed to be similar, although, with some overlaps, they occupied different gradients of the urban environment. Since urban landscapes are highly managed, the fundamental tool for enhancing urban sparrow populations would be the protection of mosaic habitat prioritizing suitable design and management of private gardens and allotments.