Adjusting for Change of Status in International Migration: Demographic Implications

The calculation of net immigration for the purpose of estimating the resident population in Australia is based on net permanent and long–term (12 months or more) movements into and out of the country. All international movements with duration of stay in Australia or travel abroad of less than 12 months (defined as short–term) are excluded. However, changes between short–term and long–term/permanent status can occur when people extend or shorten their stay or travel. Because net immigration is a significant component of Australia’s population growth (accounting for 40–50 per cent of annual growth), adjusting for these changes in migration status is thought to result in better estimates of net immigration and the resident population. The paper shows that adjusting for change of status can have a large impact on net immigration, particularly when the immigrant intake is small. Failure to adequately adjust for change of status can also lead to misleading conclusions about the relative contributions of net temporary and permanent movements to total net immigration. The effect on the resident population, however, is relatively small, being less than 1 per cent of the total population. The paper also addresses the question of how important it is for countries to adjust for change of migrant status in international migration statistics in the context of increasing international mobility.     

Population growth impacts of zero net international migration

"In a country such as the United States, the contribution of net international migration to overall population change overshadows the contribution of natural increase.... Some analysts have assumed that if the same number of people leave and enter the country each year, then the effect of net international migration will be zero. This article examines that assumption and shows that it is fallacious. Examining the direct, indirect, total, and negative demographic impacts of zero net international migration through simulations with demographic data, we demonstrate that zero net international migration is not the same and therefore does not have the same demographic results and implications as zero international migration. We conclude that zero net international migration should not be confused with zero international migration."     

Population Redistribution Trends in Nonmetropolitan America, 2010 to 2021☆

Given the turbulent conditions of the early 21st century and the release of data from the 2020 Census, it is an appropriate time to examine contemporary population redistribution trends in nonmetropolitan America. Analysis centers on the major demographic components of population change: migration; and natural increase. The analysis demonstrates that the turbulent economic, social, and now epidemiological conditions of recent years altered traditional demographic trends in nonmetropolitan America. For the first time in history, nonmetropolitan America lost population between 2010 and 2020 because of shifts in migration trends and diminishing natural increase. In contrast, post-censal population estimates suggest that nonmetropolitan population gains exceeded those in metropolitan areas for the first time in 50 years between 2020 and 2021. The recent widespread nonmetropolitan population increases are the result of substantial net migration gains that offset the growing natural decrease fostered by COVID-19. Sustained net migration gains in nonmetro areas provides a demographic lifeline to many counties that would otherwise face depopulation because of accelerating natural decrease. Whether these migration patterns can be sustained remains to be seen.     

The demographic transformation and the sociological enterprise

The dramatic demographic changes of the 1980s and 1990s in the United States are creating a multiracial, multicultural society. This article examines the intellectual challenges for sociology posed by the emerging racial diversity brought about by these population trends. The problem is that conventional sociological frameworks no longer apply in this increasingly complex social world of rapid population changes, diversity, and polarization. Most significant, conventional American sociology, which has focused on white society rooted in western culture, is challenged by three large racial/ethnic categories. We argue that diversity must be incorporated into our sociologies. This requires two new approaches: (1) Sociology must be recentered, that is, it must move away from the notion that whites have the universal experience against which all others are measured; and (2) Sociologists must apply to diverse populations the same kind of sociological analysis that they apply to mainstream categories. This means that we demythologize by dispelling common myths about those outside the mainstream and that we uncover the mechanisms that construct social differences.     

Ethnicity or race,area characteristics,and sexual partner choice among American adolescents

The aim of this paper is to examine the association of individual demographic variables and area characteristics with the characteristics of sexual partners of American adolescents. Data for the study were drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The data indicate that the community characteristics of ethnic or racial composition of the population and region were most strongly related to the ethnicity or race of the partner. Regional differences in the ethnicity or race of partners were significant even after controlling for the ethnic or racial composition of the community. Differences in partner s age, grade, neighborhood, and school or residence were not related to school and community characteristics. In addition, the individual characteristics of age, gender, and race or ethnicity were also related to ethnicity or race of partner.     

Ethnicity or race,area characteristics,and sexual partner choice among American adolescents

The aim of this paper is to examine the association of individual demographic variables and area characteristics with the characteristics of sexual partners of American adolescents. Data for the study were drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The data indicate that the community characteristics of ethnic or racial composition of the population and region were most strongly related to the ethnicity or race of the partner. Regional differences in the ethnicity or race of partners were significant even after controlling for the ethnic or racial composition of the community. Differences in partner's age, grade, neighborhood, and school or residence were not related to school and community characteristics. In addition, the individual characteristics of age, gender, and race or ethnicity were also related to ethnicity or race of partner.     

Critical Race Theories,Colorism, and the Decade's Research on Families of Color

In the millennium's inaugural decade, 2 interrelated trends influenced research on America's families of color: the need for new knowledge about America's growing ethnic/racial minority and immigrant populations and conceptual advances in critical race theories and perspectives on colorism. Three substantive areas reflecting researchers' interests in these trends emerged as the most frequently studied topics about families of color: inequality and socioeconomic mobility within and across families, interracial romantic pairings, and the racial socialization of children. In this review, we synthesize and critique the decade's scholarly literature on these topics. We devote special attention to advances in knowledge made by family‐relevant research that incorporated ways of thinking from critical race theories and the conceptual discourse on colorism.     

Internal Migration of Ethno‐national Minorities: The Case of Arabs in Israel

Recent scholarship emphasizes differences among ethnic groups' internal migration patterns. Yet, with few exceptions, research has focused on the Anglo‐American world, neglecting experiences from other regions. This paper is part of a larger research project that studies mobility among the Arab minority in Israel and its driving forces. In this paper we examine patterns of internal migration by analysing the propensity to migrate as well as migrants' individual and social characteristics. First, we survey the theoretical backdrop that is suggested by recent geographic literature on internal migration among ethnic and racial minorities, including native groups. Second, we contextualize the group studied, providing necessary background information on the political, socio‐economic and demographic conditions of Arabs in Israel. We briefly discuss attributes that are – or have been – potential hindering factors to Arab mobility in the Jewish state. Finally, we analyse 1995 national census data at the micro scale and provide a basis for future explanations of the phenomenon. We conclude by outlying some future directions in the study of internal migration of minorities in Israel.     

Race and the Religious Contexts of Violence: Linking Religion and White,Black, and Latino Violent Crime

Research has demonstrated that concentrated disadvantage and other measures are strongly associated with aggregate‐level rates of violence, including across racial and ethnic groups. Less studied is the impact of cultural factors, including religious contextual measures. The current study addresses several key gaps in prior literature by utilizing race/ethnic‐specific arrest data from California, New York, and Texas paired with religious contextual data from the Religious Congregations and Memberships Survey. Results suggest that, net of important controls, (1) religious contextual measures have significant crime‐reducing associations with violence; (2) these associations are race/ethnic specific; and (3) religious contextual measures moderate the criminogenic association between disadvantage and violence for blacks. Implications for future research are discussed.     

The world economic system and international migration in less developed countries: an ecological approach

This study examines net migration in less developed countries (LDCs) within the context of a world economic system and an urban ecological framework. Data are obtained from the "1987 World Development Report," the "1983 and 1987 World Bank Tables," and the 1984 UN Demographic Yearbook. It is posited that international migration is a direct response to the changes in the ecological subsystems in LDCs. The framework of this analysis relies on analyses by Sly and Tayman that found in multi-equation models that migration was a demographic response to environmental conditions created by organization and technology. The maximum likelihood estimates derived from the proposed structural model indicate that net capital flows positively influence net migration rate directly. Large transfers of capital were associated with net migration. It is suggested that a reduced percentage in the labor force in agriculture may have a greater impact on emigration than wages or social disadvantages. Gross national product had a smaller impact on migration than net capital outflows. Exports had a positive impact on net migration. There was a direct negative effect of value added to manufacturing on net migration, and the direct negative effect was greater than the positive indirect effect. The percentage of persons economically active had a positive impact on net migration. Increased economic activity was related to increased emigration. The evidence suggests that world economic systems did have an impact on emigration, when profits were not invested in domestic economies of LDCs. Findings suggest that the value added to manufacturing, the percentage engaged in agriculture, and the economically active population mediated the impact of trade on net migration.     

DO RACIAL AND ETHNIC STEREOTYPES DEPEND ON THE SEX OF TARGET GROUP MEMBERS? Evidence from a Survey‐Based Experiment

Several social scientific perspectives suggest that racial and ethnic stereotypes vary by the sex of minority group members. However, prior research has not used survey data to test the hypothesis that the public holds strong gendered racial/ethnic stereotypes. We exploit a between-subjects experiment in the Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality to investigate the extent to which respondents' beliefs about seven attributes of four racial/ethnic target groups depend on the sex of target group members. Consistent with the "contingent" perspective of intersectionality theory, we find that effects of target group sex depend upon the extent to which particular racial/ethnic stereotypes have been gendered in American culture. However, we also find that effects of target group sex are consistently much smaller than those of race/ethnicity. We conclude by discussing implications for survey research on stereotypes across multiple status dimensions.     

LATINO HEALTH IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM: THE NEED FOR A CULTURE-CENTERED APPROACH

Studies have consistently shown race and ethnicity to be important determinants of health. The specific nature of this influence, however, is still a mystery. In the new millennium, racial and ethnic differentials in health are bound to become a major focus in medical sociology not only because of their persistence but also because of the demographic changes taking place in the United States. It is estimated that racial and ethnic minorities are expected to increase from the current level of 25 % of all Americans to 40 % by 2030 and that minority groups will make up more than half of the U.S. population by 2050. Thus, overcoming health disparities attributable to race and ethnicity has become more urgent in ensuring good health for the nation. This article suggests that analyses of the health status of Latinos, the second largest minority group in the country, must attend to cultural factors. The need for a culture-specific approach to Latino health is indispensable to such discourses in medical sociology.     

Wealth: Determinants of Savings Net Worth and Housing Net Worth of Pre-Retired Households

The objectives of this study are to determine effects of household members' characteristics, financial resources, and attitude toward intergenerational support on change in savings net worth and change in housing net worth. Subsamples of White respondents, Black respondents, and Hispanic respondents were analyzed to identify the effects of race or ethnicity on the dependent variables. Attitude toward intergenerational support was the intervening variable. Change in labor income had a positive impact on change in savings net worth for all three racial or ethnic groups. An additional child in a household and an older age of the household head were likely to decrease the change in savings net worth. Effects of the remaining variables differed by subsample. The effects of labor and nonlabor income were different for the change in savings net worth but not for the change in housing net worth. Some different effects for variables across the three racial or ethnic groups were noted.     

Hispanic Immigration and Black Violence at the Macro‐Level: Examining the Conditioning Effect of Victim Race/Ethnicity

Much attention has been devoted to the relationship between Hispanic immigration and violent offending at the macro‐level, including how it varies across racial and ethnic groups. Unfortunately, little attention has been paid to the conditioning effect of the race/ethnicity of the victim, or how Hispanic immigration is associated with crime by one racial/ethnic group against members of the same or different groups. Using National Incident‐Based Reporting System offending estimates and American Community Survey data, we examine the association between Hispanic immigration and black intra‐ and intergroup (black‐on‐white and black‐on‐Hispanic) homicide, robbery, and serious index violence in over 350 U.S. communities. We employ advanced imputation methods to address missing data that have constrained much prior research, as well as utilize crime measures adjusted for the likelihood of random contact between groups. Findings suggest that (1) Hispanic immigration has a positive association with black violence on the whole, but that (2) this association is conditioned by the race/ethnicity of the victim. Our results reinforce the importance of distinguishing across offender–victim dyads in research on the immigration–crime nexus, particularly in light of competing theoretical expectations. Directions for future research and policy are discussed.     

Trends of international migration since 1965: what existing data reveal

Relying on data from a variety of sources, this article sketches the main trends of international migration during 1965–1996, thus documenting the changes that both the character and the direction of international migration have undergone over the course of time. In doing so, it provides a quantitative basis to assess the validity of certain common tenets regarding the evolution of migration at the end of the twentieth century.
The article concludes that the changes observed are generally less striking than usually claimed, although major historical events, such as the end of the cold war and the transformations it entailed, have had a determining influence in shaping many of the key migration movements occurring since 1985.
In particular, migration originating in the former Eastern bloc countries increased markedly and the dynamics of population mobility within the former Soviet space underwent important modifications. In addition, the end of the bi-polar era allowed the resolution of some long-standing conflicts that permitted the repatriation of large numbers of refugees.
However, the proliferation of ethnic or civil conflict that has accompanied the nation-building process in several regions has led to a series of forced migration movements. These developments plus the social, economic and demographic differentials that persist between countries at different levels of development have continued and will continue to fuel international migration.
By reviewing the quantitative evidence available at the regional level, this article sets recent developments in perspective.     

Internal Migration and Crime in the Soviet Union

This paper analyses the changes in ethnic self-identification of the population of Ukraine from the last (January 1989) Soviet census to the first (December 2001) Ukrainian census. It begins with a comparison of the census data and describes the remarkable changes observed. Given the incomplete nature of published data on international migrations and their differentiation by ethnic groups in the inter-census period, the paper applies a method to fill in the gaps and calculate net migration balances for each ethnic group. Also, since no data is available on the net reproductive rates for separate ethnic groups in Ukraine, it sets out a method to estimate net reproduction rates for Ukrainians and Russians in the inter-census period. Using these methods, it establishes that differences in net migration on the one hand and the differences in net reproduction on the other contributed 11.1 and 4.4 percent of the growth in the share of Ukrainians and 6.8 and 5.2 percent in the sizeable decline in the share of Russians. The remaining lion’s share is a shift in identity among members of ethnically mixed (mainly Russian-Ukrainian) families. Mothers of ethnically mixed families, identifying the ethnicity of their newly born, contributed 11.4 percent to the Ukrainian gain and 9.2 percent to the Russian loss. The remaining 73.1 percent of the Ukrainian gain and 78.8 percent of Russian loss resulted from lifetime identity shift from Russian to Ukrainian, the most likely candidates being members of Russian-Ukrainian families.     

A Profile of Adolescent Health

SUMMARY

As the adolescent population living in this country undergoes dramatic demographic changes in the 21st Century, increasing both in numbers and ethnic/racial diversity, practitioners and policy makers need to understand the prevalence of and trends in adolescent risk-taking behaviors, morbidity and mortality. Significant disparities in health status exist by ethnicity/race and gender in areas including: unintentional injury, violence, mental health, substance use, sexual behavior, and disease prevention. The epidemiological profile can help mobilize communities to address adolescent health issues. Developing effective interventions will require an ecological approach that builds on adolescents' assets and takes into account the contexts in which they live.     

Net Migration as a Target for Migration Policies: A Review and Appraisal of the UK Experience

The impact of migration on population growth has become a ubiquitous argument in UK immigration debates, leading to the introduction of immigration restrictions to reduce net migration and prevent the UK population from reaching 70 million. Taking the UK as a case study, this article assesses the rationale for setting a national net migration target as a pivotal point for migration policies and the feasibility of limiting net migration using immigration controls. A framework for analysing the effects of migration policies on net migration is proposed and applied to UK official migration data. The results show that, due to various policy constraints, competing objectives and unintended feedbacks, it is neither optimal nor entirely feasible to prioritize a reduction of net migration as a target for migration policies. Nevertheless, factoring net migration into the migration policy debate provides useful insights on the long‐term implications of migration policies in the context of broader demographic changes.     

Towards a global theory of colorblindness: Comparing colorblind racial ideology in France and the United States

In this article, we apply key tenants of colorblindness, as a racial ideology developed in the United States, to France. In France, colorblindness means more than not seeing how race structures opportunities and outcomes; it also means not acknowledging racial and ethnic categories. Colorblindness arose in a different historical context, for different reasons, and as a product of different mechanisms in France than it did in the United States. We argue that despite variations in the contexts and mechanisms underpinning colorblindness between the United States and France, the consequences are markedly similar in both contexts. Colorblind ideology silences opposition to racial and ethnic inequality and maintains white supremacy in both contexts. Finally, we demonstrate that such a comparison moves us closer towards aglobal theory of colorblindness.     

INTEGRATING ECONOMIC DUALISM AND LABOR MARKET SEGMENTATION:

Although the U.S. economy of the early twenty-first century is vastly different from the U.S. economy prior to the 1970s, the nature of these economic changes and their impact on U.S. workers is unclear. This article claims that despite contemporary economic shifts, differential labor and employer power continues to segment the economy, and workers' position in the labor market continues to predict their rewards, beyond the effects of gender, race, and human capital. Drawing on segmented labor market and dual economy research, we propose a four-category model of the structural factors that influence variance in work-related rewards. We examine the distribution of jobs in each of four categories between 1974 and 2000 and observe that losses and gains across categories are unevenly distributed by race and gender. While white men have experienced the greatest declines in employment and earnings, they have maintained their absolute advantage over women and nonwhites. In multivariate analyses, we find that the structural position of employment continues to be a significant determinant of wages. Although women and racial minorities have experienced sizable increases in employment in primary labor market jobs in the core of the economy, both groups remain overrepresented in low-paying jobs. Moreover women, but not nonwhite men, consistently receive significantly fewer rewards for their labor in both low-paying and high-paying jobs. Our findings suggest that structural factors continue to influence earnings inequality, especially across race and gender lines.