中国城镇职工性别工资差距的演变

本文利用1995年、2002年和2007年中国居民收入调查数据,分析了城镇工资的性别差距的演变特点和影响因素。本文的研究发现,在1995~2007年期间特别是2002~2007年期间工资的性别差距显著扩大,其中不可解释部分的比例也越来越大,显示了性别歧视的严重化问题。特别是年纪轻、学历低、职业差、行业差的女性职工在劳动力市场中受到更为严重的歧视,导致了低收入群体性别工资差距的迅速扩大。基于这些发现,本文认为在经济改革和城镇市场劳动力供求关系发生变化的背景下,女性职工所受到的冲击和面临的劳动力市场歧视问题是值得关注的。     

所有制分割、行业选择与工资差异

为揭示中国劳动力市场所有制分割引起的工资差异,基于二元选择Logit模型和Mincer方程,构建二元选择Logit-非歧视分解模型,将国有部门与非国有部门之间的工资差异分解为行业间可解释、行业间不可解释、行业内可解释、行业内不可解释1(超额回报)和行业内不可解释2(不足回报)5个部分。以2002年中国家庭收入调查微观数据为研究对象,对在国有部门和非国有部门就业的中国城镇居民行业选择行为、工资决定机制、工资差异构成等进行定量研究。实证结果表明,国有部门与非国有部门劳动力特征显著不同,导致其行业选择行为存在较大差异;国有部门与非国有部门工资决定机制显著不同,导致其工资水平存在较大差距,劳动力特征差异可以解释其中的60.10%,仍有39.90%不可解释部分形成国有部门非正常的工资溢价。     

中国劳动力市场不同部门性别工资差异分析

非国有部门与国有部门相比趋于在更具竞争性的劳动力市场运作。国有部门性别工资差距比非国有部门低得多（MaurerFazio和Hughes,1999）。从国有、集体到私有部门,工资差距中歧视能解释的份额逐次降低（Liuetal,2000）。本文用计量方法分析描述验证了中国劳动力市场中不同部门间的性别工资差异。     

中国劳动力市场上工资收入的户籍歧视

20世纪80年代以来中国城镇劳动力市场上的农民工数量剧增,然而农民工却长期遭受着方方面面的歧视。其中一个突出表现是农民工和城镇职工之间明显的收入差距。但是,收入差距在多大程度上来源于歧视,学者们的观点并不一致。本文以2007年CHIPs(中国居民家庭收入调查)数据为基础,使用4种方法分解农民工和城镇职工的工资差异,考察劳动力市场上的歧视程度,重点突出指数基准问题对分解结果的影响。本文的实证分析结果显示2007年中国劳动力市场上依然存在对农民工明显的工资待遇歧视,农民工和城镇职工工资差异中的36%无法用禀赋差异解释。本文还强调工资收入歧视并不是检验户籍歧视的唯一指标,准确判断户籍歧视需要更广阔的视角。     

城市规模的工资溢价：来源与经济机制

在我国积极推进新型城镇化以及城市群发展战略的背景下,对大城市工资溢价的来源以及经济机制进行研究具有重要的现实意义。鉴于此,本文利用2013年中国家庭收入调查项目(CHIP)数据和2017年全国流动人口动态监测(CMDS)数据,通过因果效应识别和基于分布函数的参数估计方法,较为全面地考察了大城市工资溢价的3个潜在来源:静态效应、动态效应和选择效应,并对其形成机制进行解释。实证结果表明,在控制城市生活成本的情况下,城市规模的工资溢价效应仍然存在,而且静态效应和动态效应是解释工资溢价的主要原因,选择效应并不明显。进一步,通过对大城市工资溢价形成机制的研究发现,大城市的劳动力市场更为完善、劳动者寻找工作的时间成本更低以及劳动者更有可能积极转换工作,是大城市静态工资溢价存在的重要原因。而增加教育投资、加大对劳动者的技能培训有利于提升其动态工资溢价。     

产业结构对收入分配的影响

本文使用基尼系数和行业工资标准差等变量进行回归,验证了学者提出的行业工资差异对收入差距的贡献的论点。文章最终使用分布滞后模型解释我国收入差距的变化,并得到良好结果。在此基础上,本文提出在我国现行的法律和经济制度下,行业垄断是造成行业工资差异的主要原因。最后文章提出缩小收入差距、治理行业垄断的一些建议。     

经济集聚、选择效应与企业生产率

本文基于异质性企业定位选择模型与标准集聚模型相结合的嵌套模型,采用1999~2007年中国288个地级市工业企业层面的数据,实证检验经济集聚对于企业生产率及异质性企业空间选择行为的影响。研究表明:(1)从1999~2007年全国总体样本的检验结果来看,经济集聚对于多数制造业行业企业生产率产生负向影响,即主要表现为拥挤效应而不是集聚效应;不同规模的城市对于不同生产率企业的空间选择行为产生显著影响,低效率企业倾向选择中小城市回避市场竞争,即表现出显著的选择效应。(2)1999~2002年及2003~2007年分时段全国样本检验结果及比较显示,在两个不同时间段,经济集聚对于制造业企业生产率的影响发生显著变化,1999~2002年期间主要表现为显著的集聚效应,2003~2007年期间主要表现出显著的拥挤效应。2003年以来,地区之间的"竞次式"补贴性竞争加剧,这削弱了区域内产业、企业的内在联系与协同发展,经济聚集过程中集聚效应显著减弱。此外,两个时段内经济集聚对于企业空间定位的影响均表现出显著的选择效应。(3)从发达地区(东部地区)、欠发达地区(中西部地区)的检验结果来看,东部地区城市经济过度集聚,对于企业生产率的影响主要表现为拥挤效应;西部地区城市的经济集聚水平相对较低,经济集聚对于企业生产率的影响主要表现为集聚效应。无论东部地区内部还是中西部地区内部,对于多数制造业行业而言,选择效应均不显著。因而,全国层面呈现出的显著选择效应,主要源于低效率企业更倾向于选择中西部中小城市以逃避东部地区激烈的市场竞争。     

经济发展中的技术创新、技术溢出与行业收入差距演变——对U型假说的理论解释与实证检验

本文将技术差距、行业收入差距与经济发展纳入一个统一的分析框架,用于解释和刻画在经济发展过程中行业间收入差距的变动规律。结果表明,行业间的技术差距对行业间收入差距的作用可分解为正向的"直接效应"和负向的"间接效应",两种效应的综合结果取决于行业间的替代弹性。在经济发展过程中,受技术创新和技术溢出的影响,行业间的技术差距将经历一个先增大后缩小的倒U型变化过程,因此受技术水平制约的各行业的工资差距也将服从先扩大后缩小的倒U型或先缩小后扩大的正U型演化路径。在理论分析基础上,本文运用1999~2007年中国29个省、自治区、直辖市的面板数据,对理论分析得出的两个假说和一个推论分别进行了检验,实证检验的结果显示现阶段我国行业技术差距对行业收入差距的影响为负,而其他假说也得到相应的证实。     

中国农民工性别工资差异研究

本文对农民工性别工资差异的研究进行了系统梳理，并对性别工资差异研究的演进进行了分析。研究发现，工资差异的理论研究框架已经成型，但是对于分解出歧视中的非歧视因素的理论研究有待进一步加强；在性别工资差异的研究方法上并不完善，工资差异分解方法还有一定的提升空间。本文指出了确定惟一的分解基准是未来进一步研究的方向。     

城市规模、技能差异与劳动者工资收入

本文基于2007年CHIP数据,从技能差异的角度较为全面地考察了城市规模对劳动者工资收入的影响。城市总体工资溢价回归结果显示,大城市对劳动力有一定的正向技能选择性,但仍在很大程度上不能解释大城市的工资溢价。在控制相关的城市、个体质量、行业和地区特征,并对名义收入采用部分调整法后,不同技能劳动力均享受了大城市的工资溢价,且该结论在改变指标度量、考虑内生性等情形下仍然稳健。文章进一步考察不同技能劳动力获取大城市工资溢价的途径,发现仅中等技能劳动力的工资溢价主要来源于大城市更高的物价,而高、低技能劳动力的工资溢价主要来自于劳动力质量的提升和大城市的集聚经济效应,具体表现为大城市通过这两条途径提高了高技能劳动力的正规教育再投资、工作经验回报率和流动投资,以及增加了低技能劳动力的工作经验回报率和流动投资。本文为加快城镇化进程、缩小城市技能工资差距和大力投资人力资本提供了理论支持。     

Gender,power and office politics

Abstract

This interpretative study explores the experiences of Taiwanese female clerical workers as they deal with office politics. A hermeneutical phenomenology is used to describe and interpret the participants' experiences. The study shows that powerlessness and frustration result from: (1) structural barriers; (2) behavioral barriers; and (3) accommodation and rationalization. This study has implications for research and practice in international area of women's studies and for the field of international career development education.     

Job Satisfaction,Comparison Earnings,and Gender

This paper examines sex differences in job satisfaction by utilizing data from the 1986 UK Social and Economic Life Initiative (SCELI) household survey. It attempts to ascertain the relationship between actual and comparison pay and job satisfaction. Employees were asked on a 0–10 scale how satisfied or dissatisfied they were with their present job. They were also asked to state whether they were equitably, over or underpaid and to say how much pay they thought they deserved. Uniquely, therefore, we are able to analyse the effects of both actual and objective and subjective comparative pay measures on job satisfaction. The paper rejects the view that the higher expressed job satisfaction of women represents an innate difference rather than the results of self‐selection into jobs with highly valued attributes.     

Restorative Justice Programs,Gender, and Recidivism

Restorative justice programs, which attempt to reintegrate offenders into society by building and strengthening interpersonal relationships, may provide the juvenile justice system with an effective option for female offenders. If women and men have different values, and women value connections with others while men value independence and autonomy [Gilligan, C. (1982). In A Different Voice. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press], then programs that explicitly focus on strengthening social bonds may be compatible with the value orientation of women. However, research on the operation of the juvenile justice system has noted a history of gender bias, as traditional notions of gender roles were reinforced by juvenile justice system professionals. While restorative justice programs may be effective in reducing recidivism among female offenders, at the same time, the informal nature of these programs may lead to the reinforcement of traditional gender roles.     

Gender, Race, and Perception of Environmental Health Risks

This paper reports the results of a national survey in which perceptions of environmental health risks were measured for 1275 white and 214 nonwhite persons. The results showed that white women perceived risks to be much higher than did white men, a result that is consistent with previous studies. However, this gender difference was not true of nonwhite women and men, whose perceptions of risk were quite similar. Most striking was the finding that white males tended to differ from everyone else in their attitudes and perceptions–on average, they perceived risks as much smaller and much more acceptable than did other people. These results suggest that sociopolitical factors such as power, status, alienation, and trust are strong determiners of people's perception and acceptance of risks.     

Gender in Management: Theorizing Gender as Heterogender

Research on gendered identities in management has exploded over the past three decades. The focus on gender obscures the place of sexuality in gendered theory. In this article theories of gender as ‘object’, ‘subject’ and as social processes are used as interpretative frames to explore the ways in which gender and sexuality are enacted by lesbian managers. Their narratives demonstrate that managing gender was experienced primarily as managing heterosexuality. Disjunctions in identity positions revealed that heterosexual assumptions provide the foundation of gender. Reframing gender as ‘heterogender’ foregrounds heterosexuality and gender as intertwined and provides another layer to understanding how gender is ‘done’ in management.     

性别结构、管理层互动与上市公司市场价值

本文采用沪深A股上市公司数据,考察了高层管理者性别结构对企业市场价值的影响,发现女性董监高比例总体上提升了企业市场价值,但具体到各部门则只有女性高管与监事存在正向作用,而女性董事则存在负向影响.通过替代变量分析与工具变量回归,本文发现女性高管的正向作用最为稳健,女性董事次之,而女性监事的作用并不稳健.在对管理层相互作用的进一步分析中,本文发现企业并不存在"蜂后综合征",且当CEO和董事长同为女性时还会显著提升企业市场价值.此外,当董事长为女性时,较高的女性董事比例有利于提升企业市场价值;而当CEO为女性时,女性高管比例越高越不利于企业市场价值的提升.最后,本文考察了性别结构对企业发展战略的影响,发现管理层女性比例较高的公司表现出风险厌恶倾向,且更善于控制营业成本、创新、进行市场推广以及履行社会责任,但非生产性费用的支出较多.     

She is the chair(man): Gender,language, and leadership

This article presents results from two complementary experiments that examine the effects of a potential obstacle to female leadership: gendered language in the form of masculine leadership titles. In the first experiment (N = 1753), we utilize an unobtrusive writing task to find that a masculine title (“Chairman” vs. “Chair”) increases assumptions that a hypothetical leader is a man, even when the leader’s gender is left unspecified. In the second experiment (N = 1000), we use a surprise recall task and a treatment that unambiguously communicates the leader’s gender to find that a masculine title increases the accuracy of leader recollection only when the leader is a man. In both studies, we find no significant differences by gender of respondents in the effects of masculine language on reinforcing the link between masculinity and leadership. Thus, implicitly sexist language as codified in masculine titles can reinforce stereotypes that tie masculinity to leadership and consequently, weaken the connection between women and leadership.     

Decision Making,Risk and Gender: Are Managers Different?

This paper explores differences in the nature of decisions taken by males and females. Women are playing an increasingly important role in business management and managers are ultimately tested and evaluated in terms of their success in making decisions. Consequently any difference in the character and quality of decisions taken by male and female managers will have important implications for organizations. This paper reviews the literature, and reports two pieces of empirical work which investigate the connections between gender and decision making. The decision-making characteristics of males and females in a ‘non-managerial’ population in which the majority of individuals have not undergone formal management education are contrasted with a ‘managerial’ population of potential and actual managers who have undertaken such education. It is argued that women are often excluded from managerial positions of authority and leadership due to stereotypes, which have been constructed by observing ‘non-managerial’ populations at large. The paper concludes, however, that these stereotypes may not apply to managers as in the ‘managerial’ sub-population males and females display similar risk propensity and make decisions of equal quality.     

董事会性别多元化、管理者权力与审计需求

利用我国上市公司的会计数据和公司治理数据,以审计费用和国内十大以及国际四大等度量高质量外部审计需求,以董事会中至少存在一名女性董事和董事会中女性董事比率度量董事会性别多元化,实证考察了我国上市公司董事会性别多元化和管理者权力对高质量外部审计需求的影响.实证研究发现,董事会性别多元化有助于促进上市公司产生高质量的外部审计需求;然而,进一步的实证结果显示,董事会性别多元化对高质量外部审计需求的促进作用仅仅局限于管理者权力较弱的治理环境,而当管理者权力较强时,董事会性别多元化对高质量外部审计需求的促进效应完全弱化.这可能源于当前我国上市公司董事会性别多元化程度较低,当管理者权力较强时,女性董事还难以发挥其对管理者的监督作用.     

Gender,pain, and doctor involvement: high school student attitudes toward doctor-assisted suicide

The present study concentrates on the attitudes of high school students toward active doctor-assisted suicide as described in hypothetical doctor-patient scenarios, orthogonally manipulating doctor's reaction to patient's wishes to end his/her life (whether discussed, accepted or encouraged), presence of patient's physical pain, presence of patient's emotional pain, and the gender of the hypothetical patient. Doctor-assisted suicides thoroughly discussed with the patient are judged to be more moral, acceptable, and "legal" than assisted suicides that are simply accepted by the doctor or actively encouraged by him. Significantly, this is not a distinction that is relevant in the eyes of the law. Further, the presence of both physical and emotional pain on the part of the patient make the patient death more acceptable in the eyes of high school students. This latter effect is striking, given the result of the Wooddell and Kaplan (1999-2000) study showing that patient depression tends to weaken acceptability of death. Finally, respondents, both male and female, tend to view deaths of patients of the opposite gender as more acceptable than patients of the same gender.