Transracial Adoption of Children with Developmental Disabilities

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the transracial adoption of children with developmental disabilities. Thirty-four families who had adopted a child transracially were compared with 63 families who had adopted a child inracially; additionally, we compared adoptions in 13 families who had adopted both transracially and inracially. The adjustment of mothers and fathers was gauged separately at three time points using measures of depression, stress, family strengths, and subjective well-being. Results indicated few differences in functioning between transracial and inracial adoptive parents. Mothers in both conditions maintained low depression scores and comparable means on all other outcome variables. Fathers also revealed similar adjustment patterns despite adoption type. Thus, parents experience both short- and long-term positive outcomes from the transracial adoption of children with developmental disabilities.     

Factors Related to Transracial Adoptive Parents’ Levels of Cultural Competence

The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to examine the relationship of parents’ level of cultural competence with several factors. Exploratory regression analysis was utilized with a sample of transracial adoptive (TRA) parents of children born in Korea and China (n = 912). Results indicated that 16.2% of variance in a measure of TRA parents’ cultural competence was explained by families’ participation in postadoption support groups; parent's sex, that is, female; traveling to the child's country of origin for adoption; postadoption contact with adoption professionals; absence of biological children in the family; and families’ annual income over $75,000. Conclusions and implications for practice and research are discussed.     

Training for Transracial Adoptive Parents by Public and Private Adoption Agencies

ABSTRACT

Social work literature strongly suggests that parents who adopt across race need specialized training to develop cultural competence in order to help their children develop positive racial identity and survival skills for life in a multicultural society. None-the-less, there is little documentation of agency training for transracial adoptive parents. The purpose of this study is to describe aspects of training provided to transracial adoptive parents by public and private adoption agencies in the United States. Utilizing a survey with a random sample of public and private agencies, results (n = 195) indicate that about half of the agencies that facilitate transracial adoption provide relevant training. Implications for social work practice and research are discussed.     

A Framework for Use with Racially and Culturally Integrated Families: The Cultural-Racial Identity Model as Applied to Transracial Adoption

A new model for understanding and depicting the unique identity experiences of those reared in racially and/or culturally integrated families is presented. The model accountsfor heterogeneity within groups defined by their racially integrated families. For the purpose of describing and presenting the model, it was applied to the unique experiences of transracial adoptees. The model allows distinctions to be made between racial identity and cultural identity. These distinctions comprise 16 proposed identities of transracial adoptees and are made up of the degrees to which they have knowledge of, awareness of, competence within, and comfort with their own racial group’s culture, their parents’ racial group’s culture, and multiple cultures as well as the degree to which they are comfortable with their racial group membership and with those belonging to their own racial group, their parents’ racial group, and multiple racial groups. A modelfor understanding the role of parents, extended families, and social and environmental contexts was also presented as a guide for demonstrating the factors impacting the culturalracial identities of transracial adoptees or others from racially and/or culturally integrated families.     

Black and White Thinking? Understanding Negative Responses to Transracial Adoptive Families

Many view adoptive families as less legitimate than birth families. Because of dissimilar appearance and racism, transracial adoptive families may be particularly devalued. White American undergraduates (N = 167) were randomly assigned to view an adoptive family photograph of White parents holding either a Black or White infant. Viewing a transracial family elicited less favorable adoption attitudes and greater negative emotions than viewing a same-race family. Participants’ own racism amplified the effect of the transracial family on negative emotions. Results suggest that transracial adoptive families are devalued due to negative feelings elicited by both dissimilar appearance and individual racism.     

Identity Development in an International Transracial Adoptive Family: A 5-Year Case Study

Our case study focused on the adoptive identity development of two female Chinese adoptees over the course of five years (from when they were 7 and 9 until they were 12 and 14 years old, respectively). The study investigated the adoptive parent’s and family identities through six interviews with the adoptive mother, adoptees’ behavioral adjustment reported by the mother, two unstructured observations, and exploration of adoptees’ narratives. The study was guided by a narrative-based framework situated with the cultural socialization approach. Results highlight four central themes: 1) becoming Chinese-Americans; 2) meaning related to adoption is both spoken and unspoken; 3) a we-ness identity, and 4) social-cultural contexts of identity work. Findings demonstrate the incorporation of adoption and the adoptees’ race and culture into the adoptive parent’s and family identities. Findings further illuminate that one’s identity is developed within personal, familial, and social-cultural contexts.     

Caucasian Parents and Korean Adoptees

Abstract

This study explored the transracial adoption experiences of Caucasian parents who adopted children from Korea. Self-report data from parents of 117 adoptive families were used to compare mothers and fathers' perceptions in three key areas: parent reasons for adopting, family adjustment related to the adoption, and racial identity of adoptees. On the topic of adoptee's racial identity, parents' perceptions were compared over a seven-year period. Overall, mothers and fathers' perceptions were more similar than different, and parents appear to downplay their Korean children's race. The findings have implications for post-adoption training for transracial adoptive families.     

A Framework for Use with Racially and Culturally Integrated Families: The Cultural-Racial Identity Model as Applied to Transracial Adoption

A new model for understanding and depicting the unique identity experiences of those reared in racially and/or culturally integrated families is presented. The model accounts for heterogeneity within groups defined by their racially integrated families. For the purpose of describing and presenting the model, it was applied to the unique experiences of transracial adoptees. The model allows distinctions to be made between racial identity and cultural identity. These distinctions comprise 16 proposed identities of transracial adoptees and are made up of the degrees to which they have knowledge of, awareness of, competence within, and comfort with their own racial group's culture, their parents' racial group's culture, and multiple cultures as well as the degree to which they are comfortable with their racial group membership and with those belonging to their own racial group, their parents' racial group, and multiple racial groups. A model for understanding the role of parents, extended families, and social and environmental contexts was also presented as a guide for demonstrating the factors impacting the cultural-racial identities of transracial adoptees or others from racially and/or culturally integrated families.     

Desirable Difference: The Shadow of Racial Stereotypes in Creating Transracial Families through Transnational Adoption

The article analyzes how parents decide to adopt a child transnationally by detailing how the meaning of race is articulated in the formation of family. Drawing from my interviews with adoptive parents, I examine how they internalize ideas about different racial groups. For example, I investigate how what they have learned from the adoption agencies, their own perceptions of racial stereotypes, and their perceptions of the communities in which they reside influence their understanding of race. The article suggests that adoptive parents, when considering whether to adopt children from the U.S. or overseas, use a criteria dictated by racial stereotypes in understanding Asian Americans as the model minority, African-Americans as a deficient group, and Latinos occupying an intermediary position.     

Identity Development in a Transracial Environment: Racial/Ethnic Minority Adoptees in Minnesota

It has been argued that transracially adopted children have increased risk of problems related to self-esteem and ethnic identity development. We evaluated this hypothesis across four groups of transracial adoptees: Asian (n = 427), Latino (n = 28), Black (n = 6), mixed/other (n = 20), and same-race White adoptees (n = 126) from 357 adoptive families. No mean differences were found in adoptees’ ratings of affect about adoption or of curiosity about birth parents. Some differences were found in general identity development and adjustment. There were notable differences in communication about race/ethnicity across groups and between parent and child report.     

“There Is No Perfect School”: The Complexity of School Decision‐Making Among Lesbian and Gay Adoptive Parents

Parents influence their children's educational experiences in part via school selection. This process is particularly complex for families with multiple minority, potentially stigmatized, statuses. This qualitative study examines middle‐class lesbian and gay (LG) adoptive parents' school decision‐making. Parents' economic resources provided the foundation for how parents weighed child/family identities (children's race, LG‐parent family structure, child's special needs) and school‐related concerns (e.g., academic rigor). For White gay male‐headed families in affluent urban communities, financial resources muted racial and sexual orientation consciousness in favor of competitive academic environments. Lesbian mothers of modest economic means prioritized racial diversity more centrally. Racial diversity overrode gay‐friendliness as a consideration in lesbian‐mother families; gay‐friendliness was prioritized over racial diversity among families in conservative communities; and special needs overrode all other child and family identity considerations. For LG adoptive parent families, school decision‐making has the potential for greater tensions amidst multiple intersecting identities and fewer economic resources.     

A Typical American Family? How Adoptive Families Acknowledge and Incorporate Chinese Cultural Heritage in their Lives

When a child from China is adopted by U.S. parents, the adoptive family must address questions about if, when, how, and how much to acknowledge the birth cultural heritage of their child. This paper addresses these concerns by presenting findings of a study that examined ways families address the myriad issues surrounding cultural heritage. Drawing on work by H. David Kirk, D. M. Brodzinsky (Brodzinsky, Schechter, & Henig, 1992. Being adopted: The lifelong search for self. New York: Anchor Books), and others, a conceptual framework is presented to aid in understanding the dynamics involved in emphasizing (or de-emphasizing) cultural heritage Second, results of a web-based survey that extends the results of earlier work on cultural heritage in families with children adopted from China (Rojewski & Rojewski, 2001. Intercountry adoption from China: Examining cultural-heritage and other post-adoption issues. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey) are presented. Specific findings reveal the range of actions taken by adoptive parents on (a) how families cope with family-child differences, (b) how families acknowledge the child’s birth culture and heritage (e.g., acknowledging birth cultural heritage and culturally-related events, having contact with other Chinese children and adults), and (c) the perceived benefits and importance of incorporating Chinese cultural heritage into family life. Results add to an emerging baseline for understanding the range of responses adoptive families have to address issues of Chinese heritage, as well as trends in the reasoning parents use when deciding about cultural heritage-related issues.     

Culturally Competent Parenting: A Test of Web-Based Training for Transracial Foster and Adoptive Parents

This study tested a web-based parenting course called FosterParentCollege.com (FPC) Culturally Competent Parenting (CCP) for transracial foster and adoptive parents. Research indicates that transracial children, whose parents practice culturally competent parenting, have positive outcomes. A mixed methods pretest posttest treatment and control group design were implemented to determine if there was a difference in parent scores on openness to cultural receptivity after completing the course in comparison to parents assigned the control group. Cultural receptivity is defined as the effort that parents are willing to put forth to learn about CCP. Additionally, parents who participated in the treatment course completed 2-month follow-up interviews on self-reported application of techniques. Results of the study showed that parents enrolled in the treatment course had significantly higher scores for openness to cultural receptivity after completing the course than before. Themes identified in follow-up interviews indicated parents' efforts to learn more about CCP.     

The Psychological Adjustment of Transracial Adoptees: An Application of the Cultural–Racial Identity Model

In response to the need for increased understanding of the identity process of transracial adoptees, the Cultural–Racial Identity Model (A. L. Baden & R. J. Steward, 1995) was developed; however, the model has yet to be empirically validated. The model allows distinctions to be made between racial identity and cultural identity, resulting in 16 proposed identities. Identities are based on the degrees to which individuals (1) have knowledge of, awareness of, competence within, and comfort with their own racial group's culture, their parents' racial group's culture, and multiple cultures, and (2) are comfortable with their racial group membership and with those belonging to their own racial group, their parents' racial group, and multiple racial groups. Four dimensions of the model were determined for study: the Adoptee Culture Dimension, the Parental Culture Dimension, the Adoptee Race Dimension, and the Parental Race Dimension. In this study, the Cultural–Racial Identity of transracial adoptees was assessed by a modified version of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM; J. S. Phinney, 1992). Psychological adjustment was assessed by the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI; L. R. Derogatis & P. A. Cleary, 1977). The sample consisted of 51 transracial adoptees who completed mail survey questionnaires. The exploratory findings supported the Cultural–Racial Identity Model by demonstrating that the modified version of the MEIM successfully yielded variation in the potential Cultural–Racial Identities that the transracial adoptees reported. Findings also did not yield support for differences in psychological adjustment among transracial adoptees having different Cultural–Racial Identities. The implications that the results have for counseling practice and social policy were discussed.     

Socializing Children About Family Structure: Perspectives of Lesbian and Gay Adoptive Parents

Despite increasing numbers of lesbian- and gay- (LG-) parent families, little research on LG-adoptive-parent families has examined parental beliefs and perceptions related to discussing their sexual minority status with their children. This study assessed 266 LG adoptive parents (160 lesbian mothers, 106 gay fathers) from the Modern Adoptive Families (MAF) study, a nationwide survey (2012–2013) of adoptive parents' pre- and post-placement experiences. A cultural socialization lens provided the framework for examining LG parenting beliefs and practices. Two measurement scales were developed to examine parents' perceptions and self-efficacy related to socializing their child about being in a sexual-minority-parent family. Results indicate that LG parents endorse the importance of unique socialization practices and generally feel confident engaging in these practices. Parent education, transracial adoption, endorsement of racial socialization, and socialization self-efficacy were positively associated with endorsement of socialization practices. Excellent reliability suggests the 2 scales have the potential of being psychometrically sound instruments with which to measure parental endorsement and related self-efficacy of socialization practices for families headed by sexual minority parents. Findings contribute to a deeper understanding of socialization and communication patterns in LG-headed families, especially those formed through adoption. Research, policy, and practice implications are discussed.     

Contributions of Family Leisure to Family Functioning Among Transracial Adoptive Families

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to examine family leisure behavior among intact families with transracial adoptive children and make comparisons to a broad sample of families with only biological children. The sample consisted of 197 adoptive families. Data were analyzed from a parent, youth, and family perspective. The Family Leisure Activity Profile (FLAP) was used to determine family leisure involvement. FACES II was used to measure family functioning. Findings indicated that measures of family cohesion, family adaptability, and family functioning were higher among the adoptive family sample. Core, balance, and total family leisure involvement were also higher among the adoptive family sample. Multiple regression analyses indicated a positive relationship between family leisure and family functioning among this sample from the parent, youth, and family levels of measurement. Implications for practice and further research are discussed.     

Racial Authenticity and Familial Acceptance Among Transracial Adoptees: A Bothersome Bargain of Belonging

Transracial adoption in the United States has increased significantly in recent years. Crossing the color line within the intimate familial sphere has important implications for how institutions such as the family enable and constrain individuals' identity work. We explore how transracial family members utilize racial stereotypes and racialist understandings in everyday life, employing 30 in‐depth, life‐story interviews with both transracial adoptees and their white siblings. In attempts to accomplish a sense of belonging and authenticity, we argue that both transracial adoptees of color and their white siblings experience divergent and paradoxical expectations of familial and racial authenticity. We find that although they often utilized “color capital” in a quest for racial authenticity, in certain spaces and environments, they were expected to eschew their nonwhite identity and embrace “acting white” as purported by white family members and their “white debt” approach to racial socialization. This study adds nuance to the question of how families navigate the enduring power of the color line in relation to the reproduction of both material inequalities and racial discrimination.     

Racial–Ethnic Socialization and Transracial Adoptee Outcomes: A Systematic Research Synthesis

Transracial adoptees face unique challenges when it comes to being socialized with their race and culture. Ethnic identity and parent racial–ethnic socialization are two important variables that have been studied in the transracial adoption literature. Additionally, transracial adoptee outcomes of racial–ethnic socialization have been analyzed in multiple studies. However, few reviews have focused on synthesizing empirical studies that include the variables of both racial–ethnic socialization and transracial adoptee outcomes together. Therefore, the purpose of this systematic research synthesis was to examine studies with variables of parent practices of racial–ethnic socialization and transracial adoptee outcomes, and transracial adoptee experiences of racial–ethnic socialization and adoptee outcomes. Thirteen studies were included in the synthesis, and collective findings suggest that racial–ethnic socialization is associated with healthy adoptee outcomes in multiple studies. Implications and limitations about the need for transracially adoptive parents to be educated about racial–ethnic socialization, and resources that adoptive agencies can provide are discussed.     

Communicatively Constructing Birth Family Relationships in Open Adoptive Families: Naming,Connecting, and Relational Functioning

Open adoption (i.e., involving ongoing communication between birth and adoptive families) has become the predominant form of private domestic adoption. As such, an understanding of the communicative structures that create and sustain these families is needed. Grounded in discourse dependent family theorizing, we explored open adoptive parents’ (n = 298) construction of the birth family relationship through naming and connecting. Thematic analysis illuminated six address terms: identical derivative, familiar, cultural derivative, parallel derivative, first name, and no address term. Cluster and discriminant function analysis revealed four open adoption contact types: controlled, social, constant, and concise, which predict relational functioning.