Defining Social Inclusion for Children with Disabilities: A Critical Literature Review

Social inclusion is a complex and often misunderstood concept. For children with disabilities, research has documented the degree of loneliness, bullying and exclusion they often experience in their social lives. This paper presents the findings of a critical literature review on the social inclusion of children with disabilities. Study methods comprised rigorous criteria for study selection followed by established protocols for evaluating studies. Reputable rating scales were used to examine peer‐reviewed research published within the last 10 years. Fifty‐four studies were analyzed for essential themes. Findings reflect a broad range of stakeholder perspectives and factors that promote or inhibit social inclusion, including child‐specific variables as well as environmental influences. Additional research should focus on the perspectives and experiences of children in inclusive settings, particularly those with disabilities, as a means of safeguarding their future social and emotional well‐being.     

‘The boys and girls not calling me names and the teachers to believe me’. Name calling and the experiences of Travellers in school

This paper is about name calling and bullying of Gypsy and Show Travellers in school and the response of schools. The data discussed were gathered as part of a small‐scale study of the experiences of Gypsy and Show Travellers in school in Scotland and of the views of school and Traveller support staff. The overall focus of the study was on exclusion and perceptions of deviance. There was a difference in the teachers' views of the two groups of Travellers, with Gypsy Traveller pupils perceived as having, and presenting, more difficulties in school. However both Gypsy and Show Traveller children experienced frequent racist bullying and name calling, often not acknowledged by their school. The paper focuses particularly on this latter aspect of our research, raising issues about the ability of schools to support diversity and suggesting that approaches to bullying often fail to address both broader issues of social relationships in school and also the historical and cultural context of prejudice against Travellers. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Teacher Engagement with Bullying: Managing an Identity within a School

Bullying is a social problem that is detrimental to a student's education. Teacher response is an important factor to reducing bullying, which is especially important at the elementary school level. While teachers show a greater understanding of the definition of bullying than students, they struggle to recognize and respond to bullying. Using 12 grade-specific focus groups of K–5th grade teachers, this study analyzed the disconnect between teachers' understanding of what bullying is and their perception of the experiences of bullying around them. Using a modified Ecological Model, examining the teacher experience, it was found that a whole-school response to bullying is needed to help teachers stem the academic definition of bullying into their workplace engagements, taking responsibility for changing the culture of bullying. Without school support, teachers sustained a more stereotypical perspective of bullying as they managed their teacher identities, struggling to avoid them being “spoiled.”     

An education and negotiation of differences: the ‘schooling’ experiences of English-speaking Canadian children growing up with polio during the 1940s and 1950s

In this paper we present oral narratives focusing on schooling experiences of Canadians who lived with polio as children between 1940 and 1959. We argue that disabled students with polio received an education about the differences ascribed to them by individuals in authority (teachers, principals), by other young people, and through the dominant negative discourses of polio and normalizing, ableist practices of schooling. Using narrative accounts from participants’ interviews, we analyze their school experiences of difference: inaccessible physical and temporal spaces, bullying at school, exclusion from classes, and negotiating youth culture related to shoes, clothes and friendships. However, participants were not passive and they discussed how, along with families, they negotiated and occasionally defied normalizing processes. This research gives voice to a generation of disabled English-speaking Canadians, whose stories about school have not been heard before.     

My child is not my carer: mothers with physical disabilities and the well-being of children

This article describes a qualitative study on the experiences of mothers with physical disabilities. Two focus groups were held for mothers with young children and mothers of older children. Eight mothers also participated in in-depth interviews. All have a physical impairment, most are wheelchair users. This article focuses on (a) participants' attempts to ensure the physical and psychological well-being of their children; (b) their child-rearing philosophies and practices; and (c) the overall nature of the parent-child relationship. A range of parenting practices, experiences and relationships was reported. The variability of experiences notwithstanding, participants' life stories demonstrate a strong commitment to children, actions to ensure their care and well-being, and attempts to shield them from any burden related to the maternal disability. Whilst challenges and barriers were candidly reported, by and large, they do not overshadow the joy and fulfilment that these women derive from motherhood.     

Bullying and ethnic diversity: investigating their relation in the school setting

This particular study investigated school bullying in relation to ethnic diversity in Cyprus. The research involved 469, 8–14 years old pupils of Cypriot origin and 83 pupils of non-Cypriot origin. Two different questionnaires, one for Cypriot and one for non-Cypriot students, were used and data was analyzed using the SPSS statistical package. The findings showed that ethnic diversity seems to be a factor that can precipitate school bullying and victimization in Cypriot primary and secondary schools, that non-Cypriot students feel more victimized than their Cypriot classmates and that they prefer to share their experiences relating to bullying with someone outside of the school. Additionally, the study revealed that verbal and psychological bullying were the most common kinds of bullying that Cypriot and non-Cypriot students faced, and that both groups limit their knowledge of each other to ‘songs, language, food and games’. The study also showed that the teacher’s role in facing and preventing bullying related to ethno-cultural diversity is critical. Finally, citizenship education and the use of mediation techniques are proposed as a means to foster non- Cypriot students’ social inclusion and, thus, prevent their victimization.     

Coping with victimization in heterosexual and sexual minority university students

This study examined perceived social support available to victims of traditional and cyber forms of bullying in a heterosexual and sexual minority emerging adult university student population. Questionnaires were completed by 521 students ages 18 to 25 years old. The questions related to their sexuality, experience of bullying, and perception of social support. Perceived social support was lower for sexual minority individuals than for heterosexual individuals only when no bullying behavior was present. No significant differences in perceived social support between sexual minority and heterosexual individuals were found when they were traditionally bullied, cyberbullied, or experienced both forms of bullying victimization. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.     

Perspectives of elementary school educators in Japan,South Korea,Taiwan and the US on disability,stigmatization and children's developing self: Part 2: Solutions

The stigmatization of children with disabilities at school is a culturally widespread social justice challenge. The paper is the second of a two-part series. In the first paper (Haight, Kayama, Ku, Cho, & Lee, 2016), we described the problem of stigmatization from the perspectives of experienced elementary school educators in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and the US. In this paper, we focus on the solutions provided by these same educators; specifically, their perspectives on socialization practices to minimize stigmatization and support the development of self for children with disabilities and their typically-developing peers. We conducted cross-cultural analyses of individual, semi-structured, audio recorded interviews with 26 Japanese, 43 South Korean, 16 Taiwanese and 18 US educators, including school social workers. Educators from all research sites described socialization practices to support children with disabilities and their typically-developing peers. For children with disabilities, US educators focused on individualized support provided in private to minimize stigmatization. East Asian educators intentionally involved peers in supporting children with disabilities. For typically-developing peers, educators described cultivating empathy (Japan), providing formal disability awareness programs (South Korea), teaching moral values (Taiwan) and respecting individual differences (US). We discuss these socialization practices within educators' sociocultural-historical contexts. Educators' perspectives can be used to develop culture- and stigma-sensitive intervention programs for children with disabilities and their peers.     

Local implementation of disability policies for “high incidence” disabilities at public schools in Japan and the U.S.

This study examines educators' responses to the local implementation of national special education policy changes for children with “high-incidence,” (mild cognitive and behavioral) disabilities. Sensitized by a sociocultural, developmental perspective, we examined Japanese and U.S. national educational policies for the support of children with high incidence disabilities and their implementation in local public schools. Twenty-six Japanese and 18 U.S. elementary school educators participated in individual interviews and discussed their experiences and perceptions of special education policies and their local implementation. Educators in both countries expressed common challenges, specifically, balancing legal requirements with everyday practices, adjusting to policy shifts, and negotiating support for children within and outside of their classrooms. Yet their experiences were culturally nuanced reflecting 1) relatively flexible (Japan) or fixed (U.S.) legal requirements, 2) shifts to more specialized (Japan) or more classroom-based (U.S.) support, and 3) established practices of classroom-based support (Japan) or pull-out support (U.S.). These cultural differences are examined in historical and sociocultural contexts, and implications are discussed for educators, social work practitioners, and policy makers in both Japan and the U.S.     

Analyzing sub-population profiles and risk factors for school bullying

Drawing from a local sample of 1822 7th and 8th grade students, this study used Latent Class Analysis (LCA) and Latent Class Regression Analysis (LCRA) to identify sub-population profiles and risk factors for school bullying. Four sub-population profiles of school bullying risk were yielded from this approach. These profiles included students who presented little need for formal services as well as students who manifested needs for wrap-around support. Importantly, additional regression analyses related student membership in particular risk profile groups to the support they receive from peers, teachers, and parents. Several significant practice implications for bullying prevention and Response-to-Intervention (RTI) frameworks accompany the findings. Above all, school bullying interventions should be implemented with prudence because even the best intended ones carry the potential for harm.     

Health Care innovation and children in poverty: lived experiences of caregivers of children with disabilities in a medicaid-serving ACO

This paper reports the results of a qualitative study of caregivers of children with disabilities enrolled in a Medicaid-serving accountable care organization (ACO). The state of Ohio mandated ACO enrollment for Medicaid-eligible children with disabilities in 34 of 88 counties effective July 2013. Research participants were queried in focus groups and individual interviews about their children’s care experiences and care coordination after enrollment. Most told researchers that they themselves are their children’s care coordinators, and many indicated that resource scarcity is a more pressing problem than fragmented care. Data analysis identified a theme of scarcity and four categories of insufficiency that made caregiver efforts on behalf of their children more difficult: a lack of health services under managed care, resource constraints on other agencies and programs for which families were eligible, a lack of financial support, and a lack of family support. A conceptual framework places ACO care coordination among more upstream factors and identifies ways in which ACOs serving Medicaid populations may wish to address the social determinants of the well-being of children with disabilities. Implications for future research are discussed.     

The Postadoption Needs of Adoptive Parents of Children With Disabilities

Adoptions of children with disabilities are considered special needs, due to the higher level of support needed pre- and postadoption by families and children for adoptions to succeed. Despite this fact, very few studies examine the specific postadoption experiences of families with children with disabilities. Using secondary analysis of a national survey of adoptive parents, as well as interviews and a focus group with adoptive parents in one state, this study examines families’ with adopted children with disabilities challenges and unmet needs after adoption, as well as the postadoption needs and experiences of adoptive families with children with developmental and intellectual disabilities and adoptive families of children with emotional, behavioral, and mental health disabilities. Findings indicate that families with children with disabilities do report higher rates of challenges and barriers to service access, and that this is particularly true in families with adopted children with emotional, behavioral, and mental health disabilities. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

Developing “whole school” bystander interventions: The role of school-settings in influencing adolescents responses to dating violence and bullying

Bystander intervention programs have been introduced as innovative strategies to empower teens to intervene proactively when they witness bullying and dating violence (TDV) in their social environments. While there is promising research on the individual-level factors that influence students' willingness to intervene, there has been limited investigation on how teens' school environments encourage proactive responses. Through analysis of focus group data, this study revealed that teens are reluctant to employ bystander behaviors in any capacity. Some of the school-level factors that influenced their willingness to intervene include: trusting relationships with teachers; the perception that school personnel, rather than students, have more expertise to respond effectively; school environments that were tolerant of dating abuse; and ineffective school policies. Implications for creating “whole-school” responses to bullying and TDV will be discussed.     

Stopping Child Bullying: Educators' Diverse Approaches for School Improvement

This original case-study research investigates educational professionals' answers to survey questions regarding how to eradicate child bullying. Twenty school professionals from two different schools—one school at the elementary level and the other school at the high school level—detailed their own particular bullying problems they see while serving in their own unique leadership capacity role and learning organization and what proactive initiatives they have modeled or participated in either individually or collectively to stop school bullying. Educational professionals were asked to detail any school-based policies already set in place or any procedural guidelines that will soon become implemented regarding stopping child bullying. Of the study results from participants, findings demonstrate that more critically intensive focus should be placed on school bullying by district wide anti-bully programs and being more frequently assessed. The survey is included at the end of this article (see Appendix).     

Women with disabilities in the North West province of Cameroon: resilient and deserving of greater attention

Cameroonian women living with disabilities face three‐fold discrimination as a result of their sex, perceived inability and low socio‐economic status. A needs assessment using focus groups (two focus groups, n = 24) and key participant interviews (n = 12) was conducted to explore the experiences of women with disabilities in the North West province in both urban and rural areas. The findings show that women faced both physical and attitudinal barriers, lived in poverty and felt that they lacked opportunities for gaining an education, finding employment and forming meaningful social ties. There was significant complexity of relationships, marriage and children in their lives. Participants generated ideas on changes that needed to be made for the betterment of their lives. Aspirations included increasing empowerment and education, gaining support from family and friends, increasing public awareness, adapting the physical environment and finding allies.     

Likes,dislikes, supports and barriers: the experience of students with disabilities in university in Ireland

There are more students with disabilities going to college than ever before. It is important that colleges understand the experiences of students with disabilities when in university. This research project was carried out by 12 students with intellectual disabilities who are enrolled in an Irish university, under the guidance of their lecturers. The project looked at four research questions: (1) what do we like about going to college; (2) what do we dislike about going to college; (3) what supports do students with disabilities experience to participation in college; and (4) what barriers do students with disabilities experience to participation in college? The results show many interesting findings about what students with disabilities experience in college and this information can be used to help colleges better support students with disabilities.     

Being the Older Sibling: Self‐Perceptions of Children with Disabilities

This exploratory study explored the experience of being an older sibling, from the perspective of children with disabilities. A phenomenological approach was used to investigate the experiences of 10 children with disabilities. The participants described engagement in older sibling roles that they perceived to positively influence their sense of self. In most instances participants perceived family dynamics, gender and personality to be more influential on this engagement than their impairment. Children with disabilities engage in a diversity of roles as an older sibling. These roles need to be respected and built upon in family centred‐practice to enable children to fully contribute to family life.     

A qualitative study investigating adolescents' understanding of aggression,bullying and violence

There is a general consistency across the research literature regarding the definition of bullying. This has filtered down into the construction of governmental and school anti-bullying policies around the world. However, research suggests that children and adolescents are failing to accurately identify cases of bullying. This in turn has implications upon the accuracy of our perception of the extent of the problem of bullying within schools. The current study aimed to investigate how 11–17 year olds understand and differentiate between terms relating to interpersonal peer aggression, violence and bullying. Fifty-seven (twenty male, thirty-seven female) participants were recruited via an opportunity sample. Participants took part in focus group interviews within which they were asked to provide a definition for a list of words relating to both traditional and cyber forms of aggression, bullying and violence. Thematic analysis revealed that the participants held a shared understanding of the terms relating to aggression, bullying and violence. Participants defined each term by describing the behaviors involved, their perception of the level of control the perpetrators of each type of negative peer interaction have and the perception of those involved. The implications of these findings for both policy and future research are discussed.     

Lived employment experiences of college students and graduates with physical disabilities in the United States

This phenomenological study aims at understanding lived experiences of college seniors and recent college graduates with physical disabilities seeking employment opportunities after graduation in the USA The extensive interviews revealed that participants’ attitudes about and experiences with disability are diverse (pain to pride, denied accommodation to support); their major areas of concern are their own marketable skills and credentials as well as accessibility and accommodation in workplaces; continued education beyond the baccalaureate is a priority for many participants rather than an immediate transition to work; and the Office of Disability and professors were considered important advising agencies. Even among participants with similar physical disabilities, the symptoms, needs, and experiences varied.