Participant Observation in Data Collection

Participant observation is one type of data collection method typically practiced in the qualitative research domain, and is a widely used methodology in varied disciplines, particularly cultural anthropology, sociology, communication studies, and specifically in classroom teaching. It is to gain a close observation with a particular group of individuals and their practices through an involvement with people in their environment, usually over an extended period of time. This paper deals with the definition, the advantages and disadvantages of participant observation.     

Visual power: review of image-based methodologies and subsequent development/uses of the Fotofeedback Method™

Over the past 60 years, image-based methodologies such as photo elicitation, photolanguage, auto-photography, hermeneutic photography, digital storytelling, photovoice and participant authored audio-visual stories have been used by qualitative researchers to better cognise humanity. Each of these methodologies are deeply rooted in visual imagery and while they may share different levels of similarities, each was coined because no existing method fully met the needs of the researchers or participants. For this same reason, a new image-based methodology, the Fotofeedback Method? (FFM) has emerged. FFM is defined as a qualitative image-based methodology that combines participant-initiated photography with written narrative in response to a research/evaluation inquiry. This article presents an overview of FFM’s formation along with examples of its use and subsequent outcomes. The aforementioned image-based methodologies are reviewed including their definition, founder, year conceptualised, discipline and location of origin, brief history, impact of use, key point and their similarities/differences to the FFM. Also presented is a comparison chart of the methodologies covered in this paper as well as a timeline of photo-based research techniques in relation to the historical development of photography, computers and social media. Current statistics regarding the power of the visual to engage others are also incorporated.     

Evidence-Based Social Work Practice with Mentally Ill Persons who Abuse Alcohol and Other Drugs

Abstract

The current article outlines a comprehensive approach to evidence-based social work practice, and applies it to persons with severe and persistent mental illness who also abuse alcohol and other drugs. Representative empirical literature is summarized within a framework that delineates the three major functions of evidence-based social work practice: assessment, intervention and evaluation. Assessment protocol, which incorporates the use of valid scales to complement the qualitative interview, is based on domain-specific research that outlines relevant psychosocial risk factors, and highlights those that are amenable to change. Intervention strategies are derived from the growing body of controlled research findings, but flexibility in implementation is recommended to accommodate clients' individual needs and the vagaries of daily practice. Naturalistic evaluation methods are used to capitalize on the use of brief, valid process and outcome measures to augment individual qualitative evaluation and to aggregate data for program evaluation. The implications of this integrated evidence-based strategy for social work practice are discussed.     

Q methodology in social work research

This article examines Q methodology as an empirical method for use in social work research. Q methodology applies statistical analysis to the qualitative study of human subjectivity such as attitudes, beliefs, feelings and opinions. Q methodology is effective for obtaining data from small samples, and it offers respondents a concise and valid way of expressing their viewpoints with minimal researcher interference. The article provides an overview of Q methodology and presents an actual example of a small‐scale Q study to facilitate a better understanding of the method. We conclude that Q methodology is especially suitable in social work research with respondents who may have difficulties in expressing themselves when more conventional research methods are used. Q methodology is an efficient tool in research involving the exploration and comparison of different points of view.     

Interviewer as instrument: accounting for human factors in evaluation research

This methodological study examines an original data collection model designed to incorporate human factors and enhance data richness in qualitative and evaluation research. Evidence supporting this model is drawn from in-depth youth and adult interviews in one of the largest policy/program evaluations undertaken in the United States, the Drug, Alcohol, and Tobacco Education evaluation (77 districts, 118 schools). When applying the explicit observation technique (EOT)--the strategic and nonjudgmental disclosure of nonverbal human factor cues by the interviewer to the respondent during interview--data revealed the observation disclosure pattern. Here, respondents linked perceptions with policy or program implementation or effectiveness evidence. Although more research is needed, it is concluded that the EOT yields richer data when compared with traditional semistructured interviews and, thus, holds promise to enhance qualitative and evaluation research methods. Validity and reliability as well as qualitative and evaluation research considerations are discussed.     

The invisibility of qualitative sociology in Sweden

Summary The special situation of Swedish qualitative sociology may reflect the implacable and antagonistic attitude of the quantitative sociological establishment which in practice controls all research funds and all power in the universities. To try for a scientific career as a purely qualitative sociology is still very risky in Sweden. This situation, together with the alliance between positivists and Marxists, helps explain the severe obstacles facing the formation of a qualitative alternative.Interestingly, however, there has always been a segment of Swedish sociologists skeptical of quantitative sociology, a segment which may be growing. But, lacking a qualitative tradition, regarded with suspicion by Marxists, and stopped in their career by the quantitative sociologists who have academic power, most potential qualitative sociologists end up trying to combine qualitative and quantitative methods. Thus, the qualitative sociology that does emerge is an out-growth of criticism of quantitative methodology rather than a truly independent alternative.This paper has been edited extensively by Shulamit Reinharz.     

Navigating a new life: Syrian refugees and their smartphones in Vienna

ABSTRACT

Networked technologies are a key tool for today’s refugees; not only on the move but also upon arrival in their new surroundings. Where mobile Internet access is affordable and infrastructures are stable, as in Europe’s metropoles, refugees can use smartphones to cope with everyday challenges. The paper presents findings from a qualitative interview study with Syrian refugees who recently settled in Vienna, Austria. The study implemented a three-fold methodology, combining face-to-face interviews, WhatsApp chats, and participant research. Results are presented from a localized appropriation notion (the act of making use of local specific media environment when drawing a media technology into one’s life) identifying practices in the contexts of: place-making and geographical orientation; information access and self-help; language learning and translation; and ‘doing family’. Hence, refugees are both emotionally attached to and technically dependent on their devices. The article concludes that smartphones hold an untapped potential for integration processes.     

“A Message on Life to the Young”—Perceiving a Senior Volunteer Activity in Japan from an Intergenerational Perspective

Abstract

Intergenerational programming has gained more recognition in Japan in the last decade or so, as research and reports on the status and case studies of intergenerational programs become available since mid-1990s. This paper examines the case study of a volunteer narrative group called G-117 formed primarily by seniors who are survivors of the 1995 Hanshin-Awaji earthquake as an example of an emerging intergenerational program. The research was carried out mainly during fieldwork among senior volunteer groups in Kobe from late 2001 to early 2002, primarily through qualitative approaches of interviews and participant observation. I propose that besides observational research, a more in-depth engagement through ethnographic case study, although much less common in intergenerational program research, is also important in providing rich, contextualized understanding of the development of an intergenerational program, particularly in a cross-cultural setting.     

Cape Breton: The photographs

This paper considers the need for an image‐based research methodology. The term ‘image‐based’ is meant to reflect the use of a wide range of visuals, for example, film, video, photographs and cartoons, within a qualitative research context. It is also meant to apply generically to encompass a wide range of fields of study including sociology, anthropology, education and health studies. There are principally two reasons why an image‐based methodology is needed: in order to enhance the status and acceptability of image‐based research in the wider research community; and to provide a critical platform from which to examine and refine visual methods. A common methodology would improve the status of image‐based research in the eyes of orthodox word orientated qualitative researchers and go some way to avoiding damaging divisions within image‐based research. The paper explores three areas: How do writers of research methodology view image‐based research?; what constitutes a methodological framework?; and some important elements of a visual methodology.     

Qualitative research in family therapy: publication trends from 1980 to 1999

In the early 1990s, scholars from a variety of disciplines encouraged greater inclusion of qualitative research methodology in the mental health field. Moon, Dillon, and Sprenkle (1990) hoped their paper “Family therapy and qualitative research” would serve as a stimulus for further development of qualitative research in the field of family therapy. Ten years later, entering the new millennium, has the field been influenced by recommendations for an increase in use of qualitative methodology in family therapy? A content analysis was conducted on articles published in the marriage and family therapy literature from 1980 to 1999. Of the numerous articles examined in four journals, 131 articles were published using qualitative research methodology. Findings support the contention that qualitative research is increasing, but still accounts for a small number of research articles published in marriage and family therapy journals.     

Methodological aspects of collecting data from children: lessons from three research projects

This paper considers some methodological aspects of collecting data from children drawing on three empirical studies carried out in home and school settings using qualitative methods. The paper begins with an overview of methodological issues before briefly describing the three studies and the range of methods used. Then it examines the merits and limitations of these methods including participant observation, small group discussions, interviews and structured activities. Finally, some concluding remarks are made about the appropriateness and effectiveness of these methods.     

Just do it?

Referring to the ongoing discussion on quality assessment and evaluative criteria in qualitative methods the article focuses especially on the grounded theory approach in the tradition of Anselm Strauss. It is argued that having its roots in the pragmatist epistemology and philosophy of science the grounded theory approach develops strategies to enhance the quality of processes and results that in some parts differ from traditional quantitative methodologies. Having elaborated on grounded theories’ pragmatist roots, the paper proceeds by presenting major strategies and techniques dedicated to quality enhancement (like dimensionalization and theoretical sampling). Subsequently, both research logic and rhetorics of evaluation criteria in grounded theory (e.g. theoretical saturation, density and groundedness) are being discussed. This leads to concluding remarks on the need for special evaluation criteria in grounded theory-based research.     

The Evolution of a Contested Concept: A Meta‐Analysis of Social Capital Definitions and Trends (1988–2006)*

This paper offers a meta‐analysis that traces the contested meaning and use of social capital in sociological research over the last 18 years by focusing on journal article definitions. We identify six common definitions in use that closely correspond to the original—and in some cases, independent—formulations offered by Hanifan, Putnam, Coleman, Bourdieu, and Granovetter. Drawing from Kuhnian theory, we contend that these definitions illuminate deep divisions between those who understand social capital as a normative “cure‐all” ( Portes 1998 )—in the tradition of Hanifan, Putnam, and Coleman —and those who view it as a resource—in the tradition of Bourdieu and Granovetter—that may be used to create or maintain social inequality. The transition of social capital from preparadigm to paradigm status may potentially involve an integration of these approaches, but this will require greater consideration of power and inequality on the part of normative theorists, who are currently dominating the debate.     

混合研究方法的方法论、研究策略及应用——以消费模式研究为例

近年来,定量定性相结合的研究方法在社会科学中广泛应用,但鲜有研究注意到其方法论含义并科学地选取研究策略。事实上,学术界对于定量定性方法的结合仍有争议,而且不同的结合方法背后的本体论和认识论的含义也不同,对于研究结论的意义和作用也不同。本文以中产阶级消费模式的研究为例,详细阐述了该研究使用混合研究方法的原因、目的、方法论、具体研究策略及其应用。文章使用定量和定性的研究发现说明了混合研究方法如何丰富和深化了研究结论,如何以具有代表性的样本为背景挖掘了消费生活的复杂性和多面性。     

Contributions of Qualitative Research in Informing HIV/AIDS Interventions Targeting Black MSM in the United States

This article presents a systematic review of qualitative studies focusing on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) among Black men who have sex with men (BMSM) in the United States. We reviewed studies that were published between 1980 and 2014. Qualitative methods employed in the studies reviewed include in-depth interviews, focus groups, participant observation, and ethnography. We searched several databases (PubMed, PsychINFO, JSTOR, ERIC, Sociological Abstracts, and Google Scholar) for relevant articles using the following broad terms: “Black men” “Black gay/bisexual” or “Black men who have sex with men,” and “qualitative” and/or “ethnography.” We include 70 studies in this review. The key themes observed across studies were (1) heterogeneity, (2) layered stigma and intersectionality, (3) risk behaviors, (4) mental health, (5) resilience, and (6) community engagement. The review suggests that sexual behavior and HIV-status disclosure, sexual risk taking, substance use, and psychological well-being were contextually situated. Interventions occurring at multiple levels and within multiple contexts are needed to reduce stigma within the Black community. Similarly, structural interventions targeting religious groups, schools, and health care systems are needed to improve the health outcomes among BMSM. Community engagement and using community-based participatory research methods may facilitate the development and implementation of culturally appropriate HIV/AIDS interventions targeting BMSM.     

“You Go ‘Cause You Have to”: The Bridal Shower as a Ritual of Obligation

Getting married is one of the most celebrated and revered transitions in a woman's life. Therefore, many rituals and events exist to prepare a woman to become a wife. The bridal shower is one of those that is most steeped in tradition. It may be viewed as an event in which women friends and family members must participate. Women often attend bridal showers out of “duty.” Interestingly, many women find them boring, socially awkward, or otherwise uncomfortable. In this article, I identify the primary stressors of bridal showers for the three major participants: brides‐to‐be, hostesses, and guests. Finally, I explore the persistence of this ritual, despite its apparent lack of appeal for participants. This study draws on interviews with fifty‐one women who are recent brides or who have recently hosted or attended bridal showers, as well as participant observation at five bridal showers. I discuss the bridal shower as a ritual of obligation, one that is grounded in tradition and gives women the opportunity to express care and support for other women as members of a gender community.     

Social Survey Research1 in Japanese Sociology

Abstract: In this paper, we look at the history of social survey development in Japanese sociology. First, the history of social research in Japan before World War II is explored. Second, the introduction of survey research to Japan during the American occupation after World War II is examined, and third, the present state and roles of social survey research in Japanese sociology is discussed. Social research was introduced as an administrative tool for the government. Sociology and social research were developed under British empiricism and American pragmatism, but Japanese academia has been based on a metaphysical approach. Social research introduced as a practical tool long had difficulty in being accepted by Japanese academia. For this reason, most sociologists in universities did not use social survey research for practical purposes, but pursued qualitative methodologies for analyzing data to gain academic prestige even after Social Stratification and Mobility (SSM) and Sabro Yasuda's research projects spread social survey methods in the field of Japanese sociology. Such academics did not think that findings acquired through qualitative case studies had to be confirmed through quantitative data to serve a practical purpose, nor did they believe that quantitative data could be better understood when examined along side qualitative data. Social survey methods have been opposed by those who have favored case‐study analysis methods in Japanese sociology. Needless to say, this opposition is fruitless. I propose that professional sociologists in Japanese universities should use social survey research for practical problems more frequently. This is the best way to establish sociology and social research as a science in Japanese society.     

Privileging Fieldwork Over Interviews: Consequences for Identity and Practice

Qualitative sociologists typically privilege fieldwork over interviews. What happens to fieldworkers who now ask questions but no longer hang out? What about those who rely exclusively on intensive interviewing while participant observation remains the standard? The authors examine the negative consequences of privileging fieldwork for identity and practice, the unique contributions of in-depth interviewing, and the differences in the tales that fieldworkers and interviewers tell. An inclusive identity anchored to the analytical assumptions fieldworkers and interviewers share would increase qualitative researchers' confidence and lead them to do better work.     

A symbolic representation of Wellington: how participatory painting processes enabled a more inclusive urban narrative

In this article I examine how a participatory painting project in Wellington enhanced cross-cultural understanding between former refugee and host-society participants and enabled a more inclusive urban narrative. In light of the current global humanitarian crisis, a climate of fear has arisen around refugees, which is often exacerbated by the media perpetuating misinformation and negative stereotypes. To counteract misrepresentation, the painting project provided a space for participants to share their lived experiences of home, belonging, and public visibility. A scholar activist orientation was employed, informed by a participatory action research epistemology. These philosophical foundations influenced a qualitative multi-method methodology consisting of painting workshops, semi-structured interviews, participant observation, and public feedback. Through the process of painting a collaborative mural, participants used symbolism to deconstruct language barriers, elicit new ideas, and co-construct a more inclusive narrative whereby differences were negotiated rather than excluded, oppressed, or assimilated. In this manner, social unity was achieved in such a way that it that did not over-ride diversity.