The gambling lifestyle: II. Treatment

Two individuals with records of prior compulsive gambling involvement are profiled in order to illustrate the nature of a gambling lifestyle and describe the process of lifestyle change. The treatment model utilized by therapists proposing a lifestyle interpretation of compulsive gambling behavior is guided by three primary objectives or goals: (1) the cessation of lifestyle activities; (2) the development of skills useful in managing gambling-related conditions, choices, and cognitions; and (3) the implementation of an effective program of follow-up intervention and support. These goals give rise to the three stages of lifestyle intervention — (1) laying a foundation for change, (2) identifying vehicles for change, and (3) establishing a reinforcing nongambling life-style—from which specific change strategies are derived. The implications of this model and the possibility of limited generalizability are discussed.The assertions and opinions contained herein are the private views of the author and should not be construed as official or as reflecting the views of the Federal Bureau of Prisons or United States Department of Justice.     

Dostoevsky and Freud: Autonomy and Addiction in Gambling

In this paper the modern ideal of “autonomous” or “pure” gambling is put forward in an analysis of Dostoevsky's gambling behavior, his novel The Gambler (1866) and Freud's psychoanalysis of Dostoevsky. The significance of The Gambler lies in the way conceptions of gambling are related to the social conditions of gamblers. Furthermore, the author demonstrates that Dostoevsky and Freud express contradictory views on gambling addiction. While Dostoevsky primarily appreciated roulette as a means of making money, Freud mistakenly interpreted this as a “pathological passion”. In different ways, however, both approaches toward excessive gambling presuppose and reinforce “gambling‐for‐its‐own‐sake” – Le jeu pour le jeu.     

Gambling as a rational addiction

This paper applies the Becker-Murphy model of rational addiction to gambling and tests the hypotheses of the model empirically using data on pari-mutuel betting at horse tracks from 1950 through 1987. Gambling demand equations which explicitly account for the fact that gambling is an addictive behavior are derived from the Becker-Murphy theoretical model of rational addictive behavior. The effectiveness of changing the takeout rate, the price variable, on gambling behavior, is examined within the addictive framework. Using instrumental variables techniques, gambling demand equations are estimated, with the results supporting the hypothesis of model of rational addictive behavior. In particular, significant inter-temporal linkages are found in gambling consumption, confirming the assumption that gambling is addictive. Future events are found to have a significant impact on current consumption, implying that individuals are not behaving myopically. The long run price elasticities of demand implied by the estimates obtained for the addictive demand equation for handle per attendee is approximately –0.68, significantly larger (by approximately a third) than those obtained from demand equations estimated under the hypothesis of nonaddictive behavior (with an elasticity of –0.454). This reaffirms that the takeout rate is an effective policy instrument for state governments as they set the price of gambling.The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Michael Grossman and Frank Chaloupka. Comments and insights on early drafts of this paper from Gary Becker, Kevin Murphy, Robert Cherry, Alice Hughey, and William Eadington are appreciated and have improved the final product. Peggy Hendershot (Thoroughbred Racing Commission), and Terri LaFleur (Gaming and Wagering Business Magazine) made the job of collecting data for this study a manageable task. Also, thanks goes to Eugene Martin Christiansen for spending hours explaining terms and giving me direction, in an untiring and supportive manner. The research assistance of Christopher Mobilia and Allan Markowitz is appreciated. The views expressed, along with any errors are those of the author.     

Some theoretical models and constructs generic to substance abuse prevention programs for adolescents: possible relevance and limitations for problem gambling

For the past several years the author and his colleagues have explored the area of how social psychological constructs and theoretical models can be applied to the prevention of health threatening behaviors in adolescents. In examining the need for the development of gambling prevention programs for adolescents, it might be of value to consider the application of such constructs and theoretical models as a foundation to the development of prevention programs in this emerging problem behavior among adolescents. In order to provide perspective to the reader, the present paper reviews the history of various psychosocial models and constructs generic to programs directed at prevention of substance abuse in adolescents. A brief history of some of these models, possibly most applicable to gambling prevention programs, are presented. Social inoculation, reasoned action, planned behavior, and problem behavior theory, are among those discussed. Some deficits of these models, are also articulated. How such models may have relevance to developing programs for prevention of problem gambling in adolescents is also discussed. However, the inherent differences between gambling and more directly health threatening behaviors such as substance abuse must, of course, be seriously considered in utilizing such models. Most current gambling prevention programs have seldom been guided by theoretical models. Developers of gambling prevention programs should consider theoretical foundations, particularly since such foundations not only provide a guide for programs, but may become critical tools in evaluating their effectiveness.     

Family Influences on Adolescent Gambling Behavior: A Review of the Literature

Gambling, and gambling related problems, are recognized as an emerging health issue among adolescents. Adolescent gambling is associated with numerous individual, social, and family characteristics. This paper provides a review of 21 empirical studies published between 1997 and 2008 that examine family influences on adolescent gambling behavior. Family influences on gambling behavior are conceptualized in the following five domains: (1) family sociodemographic factors, (2) general family climate, (3) family members’ attitudes and behaviors, (4) parenting practices, and (5) family relationship characteristics. Based on the review of extant literature, there is empirical evidence that family characteristics are associated with adolescent gambling and further examination of family system influences on gambling behavior is needed. Gaps in the current literature and recommendations for future research are discussed to help inform the study of family influences on adolescent gambling behavior.     

Illusion of control and gambling in children

This paper outlines a cognitive theory to explain persistent gambling behavior. The major thesis is that people who persist in gambling in the face of significant losses do so, in part, because they misattribute the locus of control of the outcome of gambles to themselves rather than a random environmental event. Stated differently, this implies that people who are involved in gambling situations and win, find ways to take responsibility for winning, and that people will seek to exert control and direction over future gambles as well. This explanation is not intended to totally supplant existing theoretical analyses of persistent gambling such as models of addictive processes, or psychodynamic motivations, but rather to add a cognitive process dimension. Indeed, the different models are not mutually exclusive. In all probability, parts of each are useful in explaining pathological gambling. This study suggests that more importance and more research is need in the cognitive area to fully understand pathological gambling.     

Understanding the Relationship Between Subjective Wellbeing and Gambling Behavior

This paper examines the relationship between gambling behavior and subjective wellbeing. It is often asserted that populations consist of different types of gamblers: those for whom gambling is a harmless leisure activity and those (pathological/problem gamblers) for whom the activity has harmful effects. One might, therefore, assume that subjective wellbeing will be negativity associated with an individual’s level of gambling addiction. Alternatively, gamblers may choose to gamble because they derive utility from participating in this activity and so the relationship between happiness and gambling might be positively correlated. In this paper we test this association, empirically, using data from the 2010 British Gambling Prevalence Survey. The statistically significant findings from this analysis support the hypothesis that individual wellbeing falls as gambling disorder increases.     

Toward a synoptic model of gambling behavior

Most social science explanations emphasize idiosyncratic or psychopathological motivation for gambling behavior. These explanations understate the fundamental significance of conventional social structural and cultural factors in determining the meaning and outcome of human social behavior such as gambling. They also neglect the gradual process by which the individual is socialized into the gambling subculture with its roles, norms, and values and the process by which subculture is internalized eventually as cognitive rules which distinguish the gambler from the nongambler. The synoptic model presented in this paper proposes a process by which gamblers continuously compare their gambling behavior with the cognitive rules with which they define gambling. The degree of consonance gamblers perceive between their own gambling behavior and their cognitive image of the standard gambler determines the gambler's behavior in subsequent gambling events.     

Gender,gambling and problem gambling

With data from a 1989 Iowa survey (N=1,011), adult male and female respondents are compared on their problem gambling, its correlates, as well as their gambling behavior. Gambling behavior means its scope, frequency, wagering and leisure time spent at gambling. Women's gambling behavior was lower than that of men, due to their having a narrower scope of gambling behavior, but the genders were not significantly different on frequency, wagering and time spent at gambling. Women and men did not differ significantly on problem gambling. Problem gambling is measured as loss of control over gambling, and consequences due to gambling as well as gambling behavior. Women and men did differ significantly, however, on several predictors of problem gambling. Women's estrangement from a conventional lifestyle and integration into a social world of gambling appeared to help explain their problem gambling. Alcohol consumption appeared to be a more important predictor for men than women. The genders shared the attitude that the odds can be beat as well as being big spenders as predictors of their problem gambling. The results are interpreted with practitioners' efforts to prevent and treat problem gambling in mind.This research was partially supported by the Iowa Department of Human Services and the Na tional Institute of Mental Health (1 RJ01 MH50369-01A1). The authors are grateful to anonymous re viewers and the editor of this journal for many helpful suggestions.     

Some applications of reversal theory to the explanation of gambling and gambling addictions

Reversal theory (Apter, 1982) provides a conceptual framework for the study of homeostatic psychological systems with multiple points of stability. This theory is applied to the explanation of normal and pathological gambling with special attention given to Apter's distinction between Telic (goal oriented) and Paratelic (playful) States. The entry of an individual to an episode of gambling is interpreted as a means of achieving a reversal or switch from one metamotivational state to another and so affecting the hedonic tone of the experience of arousal. The action during an episode of gambling is interpreted as a series of rapid switches from Telic to Paratelic States. Exit from the gambling situation is interpreted as resulting from a reversal from Paratelic to Telic metamotivational states. Scores of regular gamblers on the Telic Dominance Scale are related to their scores on the Sensation Seeking Scale, The interrelationship of arousal and reversals is used to advance an explanation both of some of the rewards of normal gambling and of the continued persistence of pathological gamblers in the face of punishing losses.Part of this paper was presented by R. I. F. Brown, and G. Anderson under the title Gambling, Sensation Seeking and Reversal Theory at the Second International Symposium on Reversal Theory, University of Cardiff Wales, September 1983.     

An Examination of the Relationship Between Gambling and Antisocial Behavior

Problem gambling is significantly more prevalent in forensic populations than in the general population. Although some previous work suggests that gambling and antisocial behavior are related, the extent and nature of this relationship is unclear. Both gambling and antisocial behavior are forms of risk-taking, and may therefore share common determinants. We investigated whether individual differences in personality traits associated with risk-taking, the Big Five personality traits, and antisocial tendencies predicted gambling and antisocial behavior among 180 male students recruited for a study of gambling (35.0% non-problem gamblers, 36.7% low-risk gamblers, 21.7% problem gamblers, and 6.7% pathological gamblers). All forms of gambling and antisocial behavior were significantly correlated. Personality traits associated with risk-acceptance explained a significant portion of the variance in problem gambling, general gambling involvement, and all forms of antisocial behavior. Antisocial tendencies (aggression and psychopathic tendencies) explained a significant portion of additional variance in severe antisocial behavior but not moderate or minor antisocial behavior. When controlling for personality traits associated with risk-acceptance, the relationship between gambling and antisocial behavior was greatly diminished. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that gambling and antisocial behavior are associated because they are, in part, different manifestations of similar personality traits.     

Work and Non-Pathological Gambling

Most economists believe that people would value an additional $1,000 in income more if they were poor than if rich, but if so, people should not gamble according to standard expected utility theory. Thus, economists have been challenged to explain the pervasiveness of gambling in human behavior. A recently proposed solution to this theoretical challenge (Nyman 2004; Nyman et al. in Journal of Socio-Economics 37:2492–2504, 2008) suggests that, because having to work for one’s income is a fact of life in market economies, many individuals view the winnings from gambling not only as additional income, but as additional income for which one does not need to work. As a result, individuals, and especially those who are disadvantaged in the labor market, attach a utility premium to gambling winnings and gamble because of that. This utility premium would explain the pervasiveness of gambling in society, especially among the economically disadvantaged. This paper reviews the economic approaches to explaining non-pathological gambling, presents an overview of the new theory, and uses data from the National Epidemiological Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions from 2001 to test it. The results indicate that the respondent’s work characteristics explain the decision to gamble in a way that is consistent with theory.     

Gambling in children and adolescents

The topic of adolescent gambling is attracting growing interest, but there has still been little controlled or systematic research into the area, and much of what has been written would best be described as “armchair theorizing.” The literature concerning pre-adult gambling behavior falls into three general categories: (a) direct and indirect studies concerning adolescent gambling; (b) studies of the economic socialization of children, and (c) consideration of gambling as play and games as precursors to gambling. This paper presents an overview of the literature examining each of these three categories. Special emphasis is placed upon the playing of fruit machines, as it is this activity which is currently regarded as the biggest problem concerning young gamblers, particularly in the U.K. Recommendations for future research are discussed, particularly for work using a functional/behavioral analysis model to determine the variables which influence how adolescents “learn” to gamble.     

An Empirical Examinination of Jacobs' General Theory of Addictions: Do Adolescent Gamblers Fit the Theory?

The present study examines 817 adolescent High School students' gambling behavior. Participants completed the DSM-IV-J, a gambling screen examining severity of gambling problems along with the High School Personality Questionnaire (HSPQ), the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (RADS) and a questionnaire devised by the authors inquiring about gambling behavior, substance abuse, alcohol consumption, and cigarette smoking. The study seeks to test the Jacobs' (1986) General Theory of Addictions, using problem and pathological adolescent gamblers as the prototype to test the model. The results obtained through path analysis and logistic regression suggest that Jacobs' theory is a plausible and likely explanation for the development of a gambling addiction amongst adolescents. The clinical implications are addressed.     

Casino Self- and Forced Excluders’ Gambling Behavior Before and After Exclusion

Casino exclusion programs are intended to prevent or limit gambling-related harm. Although previous research showed that self-exclusion is associated with reduced gambling, it remains unknown whether self- and forced excluded subjects show different patterns of gambling behavior and if exclusion from casino gambling affects all gambling activities. The present study retrospectively investigated (1) the role of voluntariness of exclusion for the first time, and (2) general gambling behavior of excluded individuals before and after exclusion. A total of N = 215 casino excluders (self-excluders: n = 187, forced excluders: n = 28) completed an online survey or a face-to-face interview up to 8 years after enrollment. Self- and forced excluders showed similar rates of abstinence (self-excluders: 19.3%, forced excluders: 28.6%) and reduction (self-excluders: 67.4%, forced excluders: 60.7%), even though forced excluders reported a significantly greater initial gambling intensity compared to self-excluders (e.g., pre-exclusion gambling time; self-excluders: 3.2 days/week, forced excluders: 4.3 days/week). Overall, results indicated that 20.5% of excluders stopped all gambling activities and another 66.5% reduced their gambling. Those who continued gambling significantly reduced this behavior in every segment, except for gambling halls. Findings indicate that self- and forced exclusion are associated with similarly reduced gambling behavior, even in non-excluded segments. However, unchanged gambling in gambling halls emphasizes the importance to implement consistent exclusion programs over all gambling segments.     

Near Miss,Gambler’s Fallacy and Entrapment: Their Influence on Lottery Gamblers in Thailand

Near miss, gambler’s fallacy and entrapment are hypothesized to influence gambling behavior but their individual impact on gambling behavior and their relationships have not been investigated. This study examines the direct and mediated effects of near miss, gambler’s fallacy and entrapment on lottery gambling among Thai lottery gamblers. Two groups of 200 lottery gamblers participated in the study. One group used superstitious methods to search for lottery numbers to bet, whereas the other group simply bought their tickets from lottery stalls. The superstitious group shows higher levels of near miss, gambler’s fallacy, entrapment and lottery gambling. Three models of relationships among near miss, gambler’s fallacy, entrapment and lottery gambling were constructed using LISREL program. The model that shows a direct effect of near miss, and one that shows a mediated effect of near miss fit the data equally. The results confirm a gambler’s fallacy and entrapment as starting points in the theory of cognitive psychology of lottery gambling and the generalization of near miss in gambling motivation.     

The role of impulsivity,cognitive bias,and reasoned action in understanding college student gambling

Factors related to gambling behavior among college students in the USA are examined by applying the theory of reasoned action (TRA) and incorporating the concepts of impulsivity and cognitive bias. This study uses a broader approach to analyze gambling behavior by including financial behavior variables using ordinary least squares (OLS) and logistic regressions. The survey data were collected through a self-administered online questionnaire of college students from 19 colleges and universities in the fall of 2010. With a sample of 5024 college students, a majority of the respondents (84.45%) in this study report that they did not gamble in the last 30 days. The results of multivariate analysis indicate that gambling is related to attitudes toward gambling, cognitive bias toward gambling, subjective norms of family members regarding financial behavior, and impulsivity. Underestimation of financial behavior (cognitive bias toward financial behavior) was found to be associated with only gambling frequency but not gambling propensity.     

Public opinion towards gambling and gambling regulation in Australia

In recent years, public opinion towards gambling has become a more important factor in shaping public policy. Using a national public opinion survey conducted in Australia in 2011, this paper examines public opinion towards gambling in general and towards the government regulation of gambling in particular. Australia is an important case study because of the internationally high prevalence of gambling among the public, combined with a strong regulatory framework. Public opinion is measured by a reduced form of a scale first developed in Britain. The results confirm the generally negative views that the public holds towards gambling, which have been found internationally. In addition, the Australian public is open to the introduction of further restrictions on gambling. Overall, the public views the liberalization of gambling as having moved as far as most citizens find acceptable; to meet public expectations, future policies need to address more adequately the negative social consequences associated with problem gambling.     

An Empirical Investigation of Theoretical Loss and Gambling Intensity

Many recent studies of internet gambling—particularly those that have analysed behavioural tracking data—have used variables such ‘bet size’ and ‘number of games played’ as proxy measures for ‘gambling intensity’. In this paper it is argued that the most stable and reliable measure for ‘gambling intensity’ is the ‘theoretical loss’ (a product of total bet size and house advantage). In the long run, the theoretical loss corresponds with the Gross Gaming Revenue generated by commercial gaming operators. For shorter periods of time, theoretical loss is the most stable measure of gambling intensity as it is not distorted by gamblers’ occasional wins. Even for single bets, the theoretical loss reflects the amount a player is willing to risk. Using behavioural tracking data of 100,000 players who played online casino, lottery and/or poker games, this paper also demonstrates that bet size does not equate to or explain theoretical loss as it does not take into account the house advantage. This lack of accuracy is shown to be even more pronounced for gamblers who play a variety of games.