Measures of Spatial Segregation

The measurement of residential segregation patterns and trends has been limited by a reliance on segregation measures that do not appropriately take into account the spatial patterning of population distributions. In this paper we define a general approach to measuring spatial segregation among multiple population groups. This general approach allows researchers to specify any theoretically based definition of spatial proximity desired in computing segregation measures. Based on this general approach, we develop a general spatial exposure/isolation index (̃*), and a set of general multigroup spatial evenness/clustering indices: a spatial information theory index (̃), a spatial relative diversity index (̃), and a spatial dissimilarity index (̃). We review these and previously proposed spatial segregation indices against a set of eight desirable properties of spatial segregation indices. We conclude that the spatial exposure/isolation index ̃*—which can be interpreted as a measure of the average composition of individuals' local spatial environments—and the spatial information theory index ̃—which can be interpreted as a measure of the variation in the diversity of the local spatial environments of each individual—are the most conceptually and mathematically satisfactory of the proposed spatial indices.     

Nonmetropolitan Residential Segregation Revisited

Abstract Nonmetropolitan (nonmetro) residential segregation in 1990 and change in the preceding decade have received insufficient attention. A set of empirical hypotheses are derived and assessed using nonmetro and metropolitan (metro) counties in Texas. Places in nonmetro counties were more segregated than places in metro counties in 1990 as in 1980. Substantial declines in segregation occurred in both nonmetro and metro places but were largest in growing places in nonmetro counties. An analysis controlling for other determinants of segregation supports the premise that population change was a major determinant of 1980–1990 change in segregation. Implications for nonmetro areas in the 1990s are discussed.     

Measures of Multigroup Segregation

In this paper we derive and evaluate measures of multigroup segregation. After describing four ways to conceptualize the measurement of multigroup segregation—as the disproportionality in group (e.g., race) proportions across organizational units (e.g., schools or census tracts), as the strength of association between nominal variables indexing group and organizational unit membership, as the ratio of between–unit diversity to total diversity, and as the weighted average of two–group segregation indices—we derive six multigroup segregation indices: a dissimilarity index (D), a Gini index (G), an information theory index (H), a squared coefficient of variation index (C), a relative diversity index (R), and a normalized exposure index (P). We evaluate these six indices against a set of seven desirable properties of segregation indices. We conclude that the information theory index H is the most conceptually and mathematically satisfactory index, since it alone obeys the principle of transfers in the multigroup case. Moreover, H is the only multigroup index that can be decomposed into a sum of between– and within–group components.     

Racial Residential Segregation and Crime

Racial residential segregation is a pervasive and persistent feature of life in urban America. The consequences of segregation are numerous and are generally deleterious for minority populations. One consequence of segregation is inflated rates of crime in segregated areas. However, the study of segregation and crime is limited to a handful of studies and many questions remain unanswered. These include: (i) Does the criminogenic effect of segregation remain when research employs a unit of analysis other than cities (e.g., neighborhoods, regions)? (ii) What is the primary theoretical mechanism by which racial segregation produces crime? (iii) What types of mediating processes can attenuate the criminogenic effect of segregation? The current article will summarize the interdisciplinary literature on segregation and crime and discuss avenues for future research.     

Neighborhood Selection and Residential Segregation

Residential segregation has long been a topic of investigation for urban scholars. In attempting to understand this phenomenon, most researchers have examined the characteristics of different residential neighborhoods (typically census tracts) and have often compared the composition of the population within the census tract over time. This study looks at the household characteristics of the mobile family, as well as the aggregate characteristics of the census tract into which the family moves. The findings reveal that households display a tendency to move to areas where the existing population has characteristics similar to their own. A multiple logit analysis reveals that the race/ethnicity of the household is generally the best predictor of the neighborhood where the household will move.     

Segregation,informativeness and Lorenz dominance

It is possible to partially order cities according to the informativeness of neighborhoods about their ethnic groups. It is also possible to partially order cities with two ethnic groups according to the Lorenz criterion. We show that a segregation order satisfies four well-established segregation principles if and only if it is consistent with the informativeness criterion. We then use this result to show that for the two-group case, the Lorenz and the informativeness criteria are equivalent.     

Racial Residential Segregation in Urban America

There are numerous causes and consequences of racial residential segregation in American metropolitan areas, and a long-standing literature is filled with debates about them. We provide an overview of the trends and patterns regarding racial residential segregation, focusing primarily on blacks and whites. We pay special attention to the competing arguments about race and class in the context of residential stratification. We then discuss the many causes of residential segregation, and its social and economic consequences. After the overview, we identify key gaps in the literature. We discuss three broad substantive areas of research that expand the study of racial residential segregation: (i) the everyday experiences of race, class, and gender disadvantage as they are related to segregation; (ii) contemporary immigration streams and their impact on black-white residential dynamics; and (iii) the power of political-economic forces to transform residentially segregated spaces, with a particular emphasis on processes related to gentrification and home mortgage lending.     

社会网络与女性职业性别隔离

社会学理论认为,人们的社会网络具有性别偏好,这导致了男女求职结果的性别分化,并部分地解释了职业的性别隔离问题。本文根据2009年8大城市调查数据,分析了我国城市女性的职业性别隔离在何等程度上受社会网络的影响。分析结果表明:8大城市在职者的社会网络具有性别同质化倾向,女性和男性更多地与同性亲朋交往;使用强关系成功求职的女性往往进入性别隔离的女性职业;使用弱关系成功求职的女性能摆脱职业性别隔离趋向,进入中性职业或男性职业。     

Additively Decomposable Segregation Indexes. The Case of Gender Segregation by Occupations and Human Capital Levels in Spain

Building upon the ideas first exposed by Theil and Finizza (1971) and Fuchs (1975), this paper presents an additively decomposable segregation index based on the entropy concept used in information theory. For any pair of classification variables in a given year, the index is decomposed into a between-group and a within-group term. To analyze intertemporal changes in gender segregation for a given partition, the index is decomposed into two terms that capture, respectively, gender composition effects, and changes in the groups' demographic importance. These decompositions are illustrated with Spanish data on occupations and human capital levels for 1977 and 1992. It is found that, in both years, the higher the educational level, the smaller is gender segregation for most age groups. Moreover, gender segregation decreases with age in all educational categories. However, most gender segregation takes place within, rather than between, age/education categories. Lastly, changes in gender composition across occupations, nearly offset by occupational mix changes, account for a decline of 2% in total gender segregation over this period.     

Local Gatekeeping Practices and Residential Segregation*

This article links the statistical data on residential segregation with the informal practices of individuals. Local gatekeeping practices contribute to the perpetuation of segregation and further explain the patterns of macro-level analyses. This research focuses on the community of Greenpoint, a predominantly white, working-class neighborhood in Brooklyn. The study describes the strategies used by residents of Greenpoint to accomplish residential segregation and to maintain a predominantly white non-Hispanic neighborhood. The process of informal housing networking is supported by the arrangements of local institutions.     

Occupational Gender Segregation in Canada, 1981–1996: Overall,Vertical and Horizontal Segregation*

Cet article examine les changements survenus entre 1981 et 1996 dans la ségrégation hommes‐femmes. Le niveau de ségrégation dans son ensemble a faiblement baissé, suivant en cela la tendance observée depuis les années soixante. La diminution se traduit par une décroissance de 41% de la ségrégation verticale (équité salariale) mais par une augmentation de la ségrégation horizontale (différences autres que cette équité). Les femmes ont renforcé leur point d'ancrage dans la main‐d'?uvre à plein temps et élargi L'étendue de leur participation alors que celle des hommes dans des secteurs à temps partiel et moins prisés a augmenté, et que les emplois traditionnellement occupés par des hommes ont connu un déclin et ont vu L'arrivée des femmes. This article examines changes in gender segregation in Canada between 1981 and 1996. Overall segregation declined slightly. This is a continuation of a trend occurring since the 1960s. The decline comprises a 41% decrease in vertical segregation, representing inequality associated with occupational earnings, and increases in horizontal segregation, difference without such inequality. Women strengthened their footholds in the full‐time work force and diversified their breadth of participation, just as men's participation in part‐time and less desirable enclaves began to increase, and as traditionally male occupations experienced both decline and some influx of female workers.     

Rapid Economic Development and Job Segregation in Taiwan

Most segregation studies have focused on industrialized nations where the economic structure is stable. However, when an economy experiences rapid development, the changing nature of industries and occupations may have a profound impact on gender segregation. This study uses a rapidly developing economy—Taiwan—to examine this issue. Based on the Yearbook of Manpower Survey Statistics, the gender representation was stable across industries and job status during the study period (1978–1997). However, occupation segregation increased dramatically. Rather than signaling a rise in discrimination, we find evidence that points to a benign, welfare improving self-selection, rather than gender discrimination. We speculate that this demonstrates occupation choice of women is more family-oriented when economic growth and development allows them this luxury.

A Legal Analysis of Segregation in Public Education

Many people fear that the current explosion in mass media technology is negatively affecting individuals and society via-à-vis considerations related to the accessibility of pornographic materials. The way this accessibility affects young people is of particular concern. In this article, the author addresses these concerns from the legal and media-effects perspectives. He argues that social studies teachers can respond to questions about pornography and the mass media in a more confident and informed manner if they gain some familiarity with court rulings and contemporary social science research relevant to the impact of the mass media in a democratic society. The author contends that education, not censorship, is the best way to address the issue.     

The Persistence of Workplace Gender Segregation in the US

Occupational gender segregation remains one of the defining elements of gender inequality in modern societies. Recent trends for the United States show that occupational segregation remains high and did not substantially decline in the decade of the 2000s for the first time since 1960. Men and women work in different occupations because of a combination of forces, including culturally defined choices by workers themselves, discrimination by employers, and differences in skill levels and qualities. Research has shown that occupational segregation is an important aspect of gender inequality in earnings and contributes to other forms of inequality as well. The prospects for reducing gender segregation in the short term appear slim, based on the weak effects of educational attainment, cultural attitudes, and state intervention in the current period.     

Social Class Segregation within Ethnic Groups in Toronto*

La structure de classe a l'interieur des groupes ethniques n'a pas fait l'objet d'etudes particulieres dans les recherches ecologiques. Etant donne que pour les donnees du Recensement de 1961, nous disposons de renseignements speciaux, il nous a ete possible d'etudier les modeles de meme que les niveaux de la segregation residentielle en se basant sur les differences dans l'occupation et le revenu de groupes de Toronto choisis en fonction de leur langue maternelle et de leur milieu de naissance. On a decouvert que la segregation de classe chez les groupes ethniques est aussi prononcee qu'elle Test dans les communautes de noirs des villes americaines. Le niveau du revenu a tendance a separer les residents d'une maniere plus determinante encore que le niveau professionnel. Les patrons de segregation, a l'interieur de chacune des communautes, s'inserent d'une maniere coherente dans un modele concentrique (pour evaluer la distance du centre de la ville). Social class segregation within ethnic groups has been neglected in ecological research. With the availability of 1961 special-run census data, it was possible to analyse the extent and pattern of residential segregation based on occupation and income differences for selected mother-tongue and birthplace groups in Toronto. It was found that social class segregation within ethnic groups is as high as that found within Negro communities of American cities. Income tends to sort out residents to a greater degree than does occupation and the pattern of segregation within each community is consistent with the distance (concentric) model.     

Ethnic Integration and Spatial Segregation of the Chinese Population

Because of the overwhelming numerical dominance of the Han within the Chinese population and the highly localised distributions of most minority groups, it is difficult to assess the level of either segregation or ethnic integration in China in a systematic or meaningful manner. Previous studies have either been limited to mapping the locations of minority groups or have been based on provincial data, which for analytical purposes are too coarse to characterise the geographical distribution of minority populations at the sub-provincial level. In this paper, county-level data were used to calculate a diversity index for each county to illustrate the level of ethnic diversity. The results of these analyses indicate that high levels of diversity for a particular province are limited to a specific geographic region within it (especially along the international boundary and in some mountainous areas), rather than characterising the province as a whole. The approach used in this paper also employs a new measure based upon the idea of a standard deviational ellipse—a measure that is used to evaluate the level of spatial segregation between ethnic groups. An index illustrating the degree of spatial correlation between ethnic groups was derived for each province using county-level data. The results indicate that, although major population groups in southern and western China display a low level of spatial correlation (i.e. they are highly segregated), these same areas nevertheless exhibit relatively high levels of ethnic diversity.