Women,men, VDU work and health: A questionnaire survey of British VDU operators

Abstract

This paper presents the results of a questionnaire survey of male and female VDU operators distributed through Health & Safety at Work magazine. 3819 questionnaires were analysed using the SPSS computer program. 57% of the sample were female, 68% were under 35 years old and 73% were members of a trade union or staff association. The large number of male respondents meant that it was possible to compare work patterns, types of work and health effects for men and women. It appears that women are engaged in more repetitive and less varied tasks at the VDU and that they work longer hours and for longer periods without a break than men. The most frequently reported health problems were eyestrain, painful or stiff neck and shoulders, fatigue and irritated eyes. The incidence of symptoms was related to hours of work at the VDU. Women were more likely to report health effects than men. This difference remains when hours of work, type of work and hours worked without a break are taken into account. Ergonomically designed equipment such as adjustable chairs, lighting or keyboard did not have an obvious effect on the reporting of symptoms. It appeared that there is a complex interaction between the physical, ergonomic and psychosocial factors associated with new technology. All these factors need to be taken into account in further research into the health problems of VDU operators.     

The impact of VDU use and psychosocial factors at work on musculoskeletal shoulder symptoms among white-collar workers

This investigation of white-collar workers ( n = 201) in Swedish industrial environments focused on an empirical examination of the relationships between work with visual display units (VDUs), psychosocial factors (skill discretion, appraised work load, job satisfaction), physical work load and musculoskeletal shoulder symptoms. This cross-sectional study was based upon questionnaire surveys carried out at industrial companies. The prevalence of shoulder symptoms during the previous year was 39%. Nearly one-half of the participants reported that they used a VDU for at least 4 h/day ('high VDU use'). High VDU use was related to increased Prevalence Odds Ratio (POR) for shoulder symptoms. After adjustment for physical work load, significant PORs were found in groups with high VDU use in combination with low job satisfaction (POR = 4.8) or high appraised work load (POR = 3.5), compared to groups with low VDU use in combination with high job satisfaction or low work load (reference groups).     

Childcare involvement, job characteristics, gender and work attitudes as predictors of emotional exhaustion and sickness absence

Reports in the literature vary regarding the existence of gender differences in relation to burnout and sickness absence. To investigate this, the present study was aimed at investigating the role of several gender-relevant variables, particularly childcare obligations, job characteristics, and work attitudes in emotional exhaustion and sickness absence in 404 male and female nurses in an institution for people with learning difficulties. Questionnaires were administered reflecting demographic and job characteristics, work and non-work attitudes, and emotional exhaustion (as measured by the Emotional Exhaustion Scale of the Maslach Burnout Inventory). Female nurses were expected to report higher levels of emotional exhaustion and to be absent through sickness more often than men. Also, childcare investment, job characteristics, and (non) work attitudes were expected—via emotional exhaustion—to predict gender differences in sickness absence. It was found that women did not have higher sickness absence rates, and although a gender difference appeared in emotional exhaustion it was in the opposite direction from that predicted. For both genders, emotional exhaustion had a significant positive effect on sickness absence, and especially childcare investment and number of work hours appeared to contribute to both outcomes. These results are of interest because, despite current stereotypes, sickness absence was not higher in women, and neither were women more at risk for emotional exhaustion. In particular, load—workload as well as care load—appeared to predict emotional exhaustion and thus sickness absence.     

Benchmark Duration of Work Hours for Development of Fatigue Symptoms in Japanese Workers with Adjustment for Job‐Related Stress

The objective of this study was to calculate benchmark durations and lower 95% confidence limits for benchmark durations of working hours associated with subjective fatigue symptoms by applying the benchmark dose approach while adjusting for job‐related stress using multiple logistic regression analyses. A self‐administered questionnaire was completed by 3,069 male and 412 female daytime workers (age 18–67 years) in a Japanese steel company. The eight dependent variables in the Cumulative Fatigue Symptoms Index were decreased vitality, general fatigue, physical disorders, irritability, decreased willingness to work, anxiety, depressive feelings, and chronic tiredness. Independent variables were daily working hours, four subscales (job demand, job control, interpersonal relationship, and job suitability) of the Brief Job Stress Questionnaire, and other potential covariates. Using significant parameters for working hours and those for other covariates, the benchmark durations of working hours were calculated for the corresponding Index property. Benchmark response was set at 5% or 10%. Assuming a condition of worst job stress, the benchmark duration/lower 95% confidence limit for benchmark duration of working hours per day with a benchmark response of 5% or 10% were 10.0/9.4 or 11.7/10.7 (irritability) and 9.2/8.9 or 10.4/9.8 (chronic tiredness) in men and 8.9/8.4 or 9.8/8.9 (chronic tiredness) in women. The threshold amounts of working hours for fatigue symptoms under the worst job‐related stress were very close to the standard daily working hours in Japan. The results strongly suggest that special attention should be paid to employees whose working hours exceed threshold amounts based on individual levels of job‐related stress.     

Choosing the best (wo)man for the job: The effects of mortality salience,sex, and gender stereotypes on leader evaluations

The present research investigated the impact of death-related thoughts on preferences for male and female leaders and tested alternative predictions derived from terror management theory: the stereotype bias effect was predicted to result in a global preference for male leaders (Study1) and a preference for agentic leaders (Study 2), whereas the ingroup bias effect was predicted to result in women favoring female leaders and men preferring male leaders. These hypotheses were examined in two experimental studies wherein participants were presented with a mortality salience or control manipulation and subsequently presented with campaign statements from male and female gubernatorial candidates. Results from Study 1 were in accord with the enhanced ingroup bias predictions: under mortality salience women preferred and voted for the female candidate more so than the male candidate, while men showed the reverse preference. Results from Study 2, which also manipulated gender stereotypic traits of the candidates, support the enhanced stereotype bias effect: under mortality salience female participants preferred and voted for the agentic candidate regardless of sex, and males preferred the agentic male candidate. Results support previous TMT research demonstrating both ingroup bias and stereotype bias processes.     

The associations between work stress and mental health: A comparison of organizationally employed and self-employed workers

This study examined the associations between work stressors and mental health in organizationally employed and self-employed workers, and with the numbers of general practitioner (GP) services used by these two employment groups. The participants were selected from those already taking part in the PATH Through Life Project, in Australia. A total of 2275 men and women aged from 40 to 44 years participated in a community survey and were in the labour force at the time of the interview. Those who participated entered responses into a hand-held computer under the supervision of an interviewer. A total of 14.2% of the group identified themselves as self-employed. Respondents also provided details of their occupation and the extent to which they experienced work stressors. Some 72.6% of these participants gave consent for information on their use of GP services over a 12-month period to be obtained from national insurance records. We found that self-employed men and women reported more decision authority than the organizationally employed, while self-employed women also had more manageable job demands. Self-employment offered men no health benefit. However, women who were self-employed reported worse physical health than their organizationally employed counterparts. While work stress factors were most likely to be associated with the use of GP services by self-employed men, the use of those services by women was more strongly associated with their experiences of stress in organizational employment. Overall, self-employment was found to be associated with relatively few mental health benefits.     

THE WELL‐BEING OF THE ELDERLY AND WAGE ARREARS IN RUSSIA

About one‐third of households with elderly were not paid their wages during the mid‐1990s in Russia. Applying matching estimations to a nationally representative survey, the study shows that wage arrears had detrimental effects on the well‐being of the elderly in these families. Salaries in households with wage arrears dropped by almost two‐thirds, income fell by more than one‐third, and poverty doubled. Behavioral responses were only partly effective. The net revenue loss amounted to five‐sixths of the wage shock for men, and nine‐tenths of the wage shock for women. The elderly cut back on food expenses by reducing food purchases and adjusting their diet towards cheaper calories, economising on expenses equal to around one‐quarter of the wage reduction. Caloric and protein intakes dropped, although less than income, and the nutritional content of food consumption with regard to vitamins and minerals deteriorated. Wage arrears worsened male health more than female health, even though the decline in income was comparable. Functional limitations rose by 8% for men and 3% for women, and self‐rated health declined by 2.5% for men and 0.5% for women. Old‐age men with arrears were almost twice as likely to die before the next survey round, and functional limitations of surviving men rose by more than 10%. By contrast, there was no impact on the next round's health status of old‐age women. A rich data set is used to discount alternative explanations, including feedback from health to income, other economic factors, health service access, health behavior, and environmental conditions. (JEL: I12, I30, J14, J30)     

The role of gender and job level in coping with occupational stress

The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between coping and health problems in the context of gender and level in the organization. Questionnaire data were collected from 279 women and men (100 managers and 179 non-managers) at a sales department in a Swedish telecom company in which men and women worked at similar tasks. It was hypothesized that, if gender and level in the organization were controlled for, the use of problem-focused strategies would be associated with fewer health problems and the use of emotion-focused strategies with greater health problems. It was also predicted that men and women at a similar organizational level would not differ in their use of problem-focused coping strategies. The results showed, contrary to the hypothesis, that when level and gender were controlled for, no relation between problem-focused strategies and health was obtained. Instead the emotion-focused strategy of Seeking emotional support was associated with fewer health problems, whereas Focus on emotions and Alcohol/drug disengagement were associated with more symptoms. Coping was at least partly related to level. At a managerial level the men and the women used basically the same strategies whereas at a non-managerial level traditionally-conceived coping patterns were evident.     

The role of gender and job level in coping with occupational stress

The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between coping and health problems in the context of gender and level in the organization. Questionnaire data were collected from 279 women and men (100 managers and 179 non-managers) at a sales department in a Swedish telecom company in which men and women worked at similar tasks. It was hypothesized that, if gender and level in the organization were controlled for, the use of problem-focused strategies would be associated with fewer health problems and the use of emotion-focused strategies with greater health problems. It was also predicted that men and women at a similar organizational level would not differ in their use of problem-focused coping strategies. The results showed, contrary to the hypothesis, that when level and gender were controlled for, no relation between problem-focused strategies and health was obtained. Instead the emotion-focused strategy of Seeking emotional support was associated with fewer health problems, whereas Focus on emotions and Alcohol/drug disengagement were associated with more symptoms. Coping was at least partly related to level. At a managerial level the men and the women used basically the same strategies whereas at a non-managerial level traditionally-conceived coping patterns were evident.     

Pre-employment antecedents of health resources, job factors and health risk behaviour in men and women

The role of individual factors in youth as predictors of adult health resources, job factors and health risk behaviour was studied in men and women. The studied health risk behaviours were smoking, use of alcohol and sedentary behaviour. Sense of coherence (SOC) was the used measure of adult health resources. The pre-employment data had been collected from a sample of 1084 subjects representative of Finnish youth at the mean age of 12 years. For this follow-up study, 345 women and 361 men, working in Finland, responded to a questionnaire at the mean age of 36 years. In the analyses of structural relationships, individual factors in youth were related to adult variables for both sexes, although only two consistent relationships were found for women: outgoing, social activities in youth predicted adult smoking and use of alcohol. Of the job factors, low job demands were related to smoking and lack of support at work was related to sedentary behaviour in women. The strong relationships of SOC with perceptions of social support and influence at work for both sexes characterized its role in health-promoting experiences at work, and supported its importance as a general health resource.     

Pre-employment antecedents of health resources,job factors and health risk behaviour in men and women

Abstract

The role of individual factors in youth as predictors of adult health resources, job factors and health risk behaviour was studied in men and women. The studied health risk behaviours were smoking, use of alcohol and sedentary behaviour. Sense of coherence (SOC) was the used measure of adult health resources. The pre-employment data had been collected from a sample of 1084 subjects representative of Finnish youth at the mean age of 12 years. For this follow-up study, 345 women and 361 men, working in Finland, responded to a questionnaire at the mean age of 36 years. In the analyses of structural relationships, individual factors in youth were related to adult variables for both sexes, although only two consistent relationships were found for women: outgoing, social activities in youth predicted adult smoking and use of alcohol. Of the job factors, low job demands were related to smoking and lack of support at work was related to sedentary behaviour in women. The strong relationships of SOC with perceptions of social support and influence at work for both sexes characterized its role in health-promoting experiences at work, and supported its importance as a general health resource.     

Reconsidering Work–Life Balance Debates: Challenging Limited Understandings of the ‘Life’ Component in the Context of Ethnic Minority Women's Experiences

This article argues for a broader, more diverse approach to the ‘life’ component of the work–life balance equation. This is discussed within the context of ethnic minority women's experiences of balancing their work and personal life, contending that there are restrictions in our understanding of lives that may fall outside the standard white western model. A key aim of this work is to question existing understandings of work–life balance debates that focus almost exclusively on gender and childcare, ignoring issues around ethnicity, culture and religion. A social constructionist framework was adopted for this study, which acknowledges an interaction between structure, culture and agency. Primary data were collected in the form of semi-structured, in-depth interviews with 26 minority female participants, 15 ethnic minority men, eight white women and six white men, all employed across a range of industries and occupations. Although the focus of this paper primarily lies with ethnic minority women's experiences, data from ethnic minority men, white women and men are incorporated in the analysis where appropriate or useful. The empirical data have indicated that both white and ethnic minority women struggle with balancing work and personal life demands to a greater extent than their male counterparts. However, an ethnicity or cultural dimension was apparent, as ethnic minority women often had to deal with additional cultural, community or religious demands. It is argued, nevertheless, that a deeper understanding of the diversity within groups is necessary to avoid essentializing experiences and needs. By acknowledging different forms of life, a more realistic analysis can take place which can inform organizational policy and practice.     

Relations between environmental problems,psychology and health among shift-workers in the Norwegian process industry

Abstract

A group of 89 male shift-workers, mean age 38 years, was examined for health complaints, subjective experience of their work environment, psychological defence strategies, and immunological factors. They worked in a process industry, controlling a complex chemical process partly by instruments and partly by direct checking of mechanical devices such as valves. Shifts were eight hours long and changed every second week.

The main problem areas identified were problems with the management, colleagues and superiors, feelings of being under-valued, time pressure, fear of making mistakes, and lack of influence and communication. The main health complaints were sleep disturbance and gastro-intestinal problems. Shift workers also complained about allergies, breathing difficulties, tension, anxiety and depression. There were no pathological levels of plasma immunoglobulins (Ig) or Ig complements. However, levels did correlate with experience of work-related problems and with measures of defence mechanisms. Up to 25% of the variance in die immunological indicators was explained by a combination of defence mechanism scores and those of perceived health and work problems. This suggests that immunoglobulins may be an indicator of work-related health risks (‘stress’), even if the level of explained variance is too low to use immunoglobulins alone as a ‘marker’. The same variables, and immunoglobulins, also related significantly to perceived health. This may be a particularly important indicator, and when combined with immunology and psychological variables, also as a risk factor for organic disease.     

Violence towards psychiatric staff: a comparison of gender,job and environmental characteristics in England and Sweden

Workplace violence is receiving increasing attention world-wide, and studies suggest that, for example, nurses and women may be more abused at work than psychiatrists and men. However, there is a lack of cross-cultural data on the topic. Further, relatively few studies have addressed the influence of environmental factors in the occurrence of violence and within a cross-cultural context. The present study compares among other things the nature of violence encountered by female/male staff (nurses and psychiatrists) in Sweden and England. Psychiatric personnel from England (301 nurses; 74 psychiatrists) and Sweden (745 nurses; 306 psychiatrists) were assessed cross-sectionally by means of a questionnaire covering various areas (e.g. nature of violence). The univariate analyses showed an association between being abused and male gender, young age, being British and a nurse, physical and psychological strain. The multivariate logistic regression confirmed that British nurses and male nurses were the main risk group for exposure to violence. Further, the multivariate analysis indicated that the odds of being abused increased with increasing age, physical strain and dissatisfaction with quality of care. Interventions thus need to be sensitive to gender differences, societal context, professional roles and interactions between them. Further, clinical supervision and team functioning, organizational and environmentally friendly settings may help to reduce violence in mental health care.     

Violence towards psychiatric staff: a comparison of gender, job and environmental characteristics in England and Sweden

Workplace violence is receiving increasing attention world-wide, and studies suggest that, for example, nurses and women may be more abused at work than psychiatrists and men. However, there is a lack of cross-cultural data on the topic. Further, relatively few studies have addressed the influence of environmental factors in the occurrence of violence and within a cross-cultural context. The present study compares among other things the nature of violence encountered by female/male staff (nurses and psychiatrists) in Sweden and England. Psychiatric personnel from England (301 nurses; 74 psychiatrists) and Sweden (745 nurses; 306 psychiatrists) were assessed cross-sectionally by means of a questionnaire covering various areas (e.g. nature of violence). The univariate analyses showed an association between being abused and male gender, young age, being British and a nurse, physical and psychological strain. The multivariate logistic regression confirmed that British nurses and male nurses were the main risk group for exposure to violence. Further, the multivariate analysis indicated that the odds of being abused increased with increasing age, physical strain and dissatisfaction with quality of care. Interventions thus need to be sensitive to gender differences, societal context, professional roles and interactions between them. Further, clinical supervision and team functioning, organizational and environmentally friendly settings may help to reduce violence in mental health care.     

Workers’ Perception of Chemical Risks: A Focus Group Study

Workers’ perceptions with respect to health and safety at work are rarely taken into account when considering the development of prevention programs. The aim of this study was to explore workers’ perceptions of chemical risks at the workplace, in order to investigate the prerequisites for a workplace health program. A qualitative study was conducted involving seven focus groups of 5–10 participants (blue‐collar workers) each. All groups were homogeneous in terms of sex, work status, language, and company membership. Results showed that several factors have an important influence on workers’ perception of chemical risks. Workers assess risks by means of both sensory and empirical diagnosis and are concerned about the long‐term health consequences. They perceive the threat of chemical risks as high. Despite this, they are resigned to accepting the risks. Existing formal sources of information are rarely consulted because they are judged to be difficult to understand and not user friendly. Instead, workers tend to obtain information from informal sources. Communication problems with and lack of trust in prevention advisers and hierarchy are frequently mentioned. Workers feel that their specific knowledge of their working conditions and their proposals for practical, cost‐effective solutions to improve health and safety at the workplace are insufficiently taken into account. The use of focus groups yielded a useful insight into workers’ perceptions of chemical risks. Our findings suggest that training programs for prevention advisers should include topics such as understanding of workers’ perceptions, usefulness of a participatory approach, and communication and education skills.     

The mediating role of work-to-family conflict in the relationship between shiftwork and depression

Abstract

With significant segments of the working population involved in shiftwork, there is the possibility of serious health outcomes. There are two possible pathways to ill health. In the biological pathway the body's circadian rhythms are affected, leading to physiological disturbances and the inability to cope. By contrast, the aim of this study is to elucidate a social pathway by which shiftwork may lead to mental ill health. It examines the mediating influence of work-to-family conflict in the association between shiftwork and depression. Gender differences are also investigated. The sample included 2,931 Canadian respondents with a spouse and at least one child living at home. Close to 28% of respondents were involved in some form of shiftwork. Structural equation modelling supported partial mediation through work-to-family conflict. Further analyses found that mediation was supported in sub-samples of male and female respondents. The results, however, suggest that the experience of shiftwork is quite similar for men and women as no significant differences were found between mediating models. Overall, the findings support the social explanation of the effect of shiftwork on mental health, but they do not rule out other social or biological pathways.     

DO WOMEN PAY MORE FOR CREDIT? EVIDENCE FROM ITALY

By using a unique and large data set on loan contracts between banks and microfirms, we find robust evidence that women in Italy pay more for credit than men, although we do not find any evidence that women borrowers are riskier than men. The male/female differential remains even after controlling for a large number of characteristics of the type of business, the borrower, and the structure of the credit market. The result is not driven by lack of credit history, nor by women using a different type of bank than men, since the same bank charges different rates to male and female borrowers.     

Effort-reward imbalance,overcommitment and sleep in a working population

The relationship between workplace characteristics and nocturnal sleep in a working population was investigated. Data from 709 employees (mean age=39 years; 87% men) from two German companies were analysed at the entry of the longitudinal cohort study (overall accrual 73%). We investigated the association between the effort-reward imbalance model at work (Siegrist, ) and self-reported sleep quality and sleep disturbances, as assessed by the Jenkins Sleep Quality Index. Effort and overcommitment were found to be higher, and reward was lower in participants with lower (N=328) vs. higher sleep quality (N=381), as well as in participants with (N=217) vs. without (N=492) disturbed sleep (all ps<.001). In regression analyses, lower sleep quality (R ²=.33) and sleep disturbances (R ² _Nagelkerke=.33) were predicted by older age, female gender (only significant for sleep disturbances), shift-work, lower physical and mental health functioning, and higher overcommitment. Individuals were 1.7 times more likely to report disturbed sleep per standard deviation increase in overcommitment. Gender-stratified analyses revealed that higher overcommitment was associated with unfavourable sleep in men, while in women poor sleep was related to lower reward. The findings suggest that overcommitment at work interferes with restful sleep in men, while in women disturbed sleep may be associated with the amount of overcommitment and perceived job reward and sleep quality associated with the perceived reward.     

Work and rest in the long-distance road transport industry in Australia

To date management of fatigue in professional drivers has largely focused on strategies that limit the amount of time spent on the job. These approaches have, however, not taken into account the well-documented effect of time of day. Consequently, the likely impact of the pattern and timing of work and rest has received little attention. The results revealed that the group of drivers who did the shortest trips and worked the shortest weekly hours were the lowest reporters of fatigue, although longer hours were not always associated with the highest reporting of fatigue. In contrast, the shortest working hours were associated with earliest onset of fatigue. For all drivers, the influence of circadian rhythms was evident in the occurrence of fatigue, with better management of the problem evident among drivers who were able to arrange the timing of rest to more closely coincide with periods of fatigue. Thus, time of day appeared to be a more important influence in determining effective rest than did period of work. These findings raise questions about the validity of the assumption underlying work hour regulations for long-distance drivers which, currently, are universally based on duration of work.