A little bit of lavender goes a long way: A critique of research on sexual orientation 1

Despite the suspected large numbers of bisexually oriented people, there has been almost no research on bisexuality. More important, the research on homosexuality is thoroughly confounded by the inclusion of large numbers of bisexuals as homosexuals, making that research difficult to interpret. The few studies of bisexuals that have been done are reviewed in this paper. Comparisons show that bisexuals often significantly differ from homosexuals and heterosexuals. Therefore, the practice of combining bisexuals with homosexuals in studies of homosexuals should be discontinued. Comparison studies of bisexuals, heterosexuals, and homosexuals are recommended.     

Re-Examining Evelyn Hooker: Setting the Record Straight with Comments on Schumm's (2012) Reanalysis

Evelyn Hooker's research comparing the mental health of 30 male homosexuals to 30 male heterosexuals may be the most influential study in the history of social science. The American Psychological Association (APA) claims her work was the major reason it began advocating for acceptance of homosexuality. It led the American Psychiatric Association in 1973 to eliminate homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. And it impacted the U.S. Supreme Court's 2003 legalization of sodomy in Lawrence v Texas.

Hooker reportedly believed experts would be unable to distinguish homosexuals from heterosexuals on psychological tests. Re-examination of her work indicates that Hooker's study was neither rigorous nor reliable. Among other problems, homosexual subjects were easily identified on test protocols; her reports of how she obtained her samples were incomplete and contradictory; and her study generated results supportive of obsession/compulsivity in homosexuals.

Thus Hooker's study was seriously flawed. Moreover, because it was marketed by the APA as central in transforming homosexual activity from an illness/crime into acceptable behavior—yet Hooker did not correct those who mischaracterized her work—APA misrepresentations of Hooker over the past 40 years appear to be more in line with ideology than science.     

Sexual Strategies Across Sexual Orientations

Abstract

The psychological intersection of biological sex, personality, and sexual orientation represents a unique prospect for investigating the evolution of human mating strategies. Evolved sex differences in human psychology may encounter different mating environments within homosexual and heterosexual contexts. The personality traits of homosexuals, if different from heterosexuals, may influence human mating dynamics in revealing ways. In the current study, 5,310 men (5,083 heterosexuals, 131 homosexuals, and 96 bisexuals) and 7,589 women (7,240 heterosexuals, 143 homosexuals, and 206 bisexuals) across four major world regions completed personality and sexuality self-report surveys. Consistent with previous research, sociosexual behavior (e.g., number of one-night stands) and personality traits (e.g., masculinity and openness to experience) varied across sexual orientation. In addition, personality traits were predictably related to sociosexual behavior. However, variability in personality traits did not account for the observed differences in sociosexual behavior across sexual orientation.     

Examining the Relationship Between Female Inmate Homosexual Behavior and Attitudes Toward Homosexuality and Homosexuals

Most sociologists and penologists tend to shy away from studying inmate attitudes toward homosexuality and homosexuals. Researchers within the corrections field who focus on prison sexuality typically conduct their research on consensual samesex sexual behavior and sexual coercion. The focus of the present study, however, was to ascertain female inmates' attitudes toward homosexuality and homosexuals while exploring the role ofseveral predictor variables on their attitudes. Specifically, the authors examine the relationship between female inmate homosexual behavior and attitudes toward homosexuality and homosexuals. Because of the number of items pertaining to attitudes toward homosexuality and homosexuals, factor analysis was conducted to examine whether the items measured similar constructs. Results ofthe factor analysis revealed two distinct factors/issues:civil/personal rights and personal deviance models. The mostsalient, and only statistically significant, variables in the civil/personal rights model were age, homosexual activity prior to incarceration, and homosexual activity during incarceration. Homosexual behavior during incarceration was the only statistically significant predictor of the personal deviance model.     

Attitude Change among College Students toward Homosexuality

Abstract

Although audio-visual materials are commonly used on college and university campuses, frequently those materials are not evaluated to determine what impact they may have on students' attitudes. The present research compared the effect of three audio-visual programs on attitudes of college students toward homosexuality. The three programs included a film that dealt with prejudice towards numerous groups but not towards homosexuals; a video-tape of a homosexual clergyman who discussed sexual variance with particular emphasis on homosexuality; and two films in which couples were explicitly engaging in homosexual behavior. A control group was used. All groups received a lecture about homosexuality.

Using a two-way analysis of covariance, significant differences were found among the groups. Subjects that watched the film on prejudice and the video-tape of a discussion of homosexuality, as well as the control group, were all significantly more tolerant toward homosexuality than subjects who watched the explicit films. The difference among groups was immediate only. Five weeks after exposure to audio-visual programs, there were no significant differences. There was no significant difference between males and females, either immediately after seeing the programs or five weeks later. Thus, attitudes of college students toward homosexuality can be altered and were not gender specific.     

A Cross-Cultural Assessment of Familial Factors in the Development of Female Homosexuality

Nonclinical samples of 224 heterosexual and 205 homosexual females were interviewed with regard to their recalled childhood experiences in Brazil, Peru, the Philippines, and the United States. Twelve items were used to examine differences between heterosexual and homosexual females. These are: "normal" family, absent motherlfather, wanner parent, stronger parent, hostile father, hostile mother, detached/distant father, detached/distant mother, seductive mother, seductive father, father's attitude toward sex, mother's attitude toward sex. Seven items produced no significant differences between homosexuals and heterosexuals in any of the four societies. Another five items resulted in some signif~cant differences between these groups; however, these differences were inconsistent in all four societies. Combining the data for all four societies resulted in only one item-the detacheddistant mother-exhibiting signif~cant differences between homosexual and heterosexual groups. It is not clear whether the detachedldistant mother is a cause of or a reaction to emerging homosexuality. On the whole, these cross-cultural data provide little support for the role of familial factors in the development of female homosexual orientation.     

Societal Norms Rather Than Sexual Orientation Influence Kin Altruism and Avuncularity in Tribal Urak-Lawoi,Italian, and Spanish Adult Males

Homosexual males could balance their low fitness by increasing benefits to relatives either through kin-directed altruism or by avuncularity (altruistic behavior toward the children of siblings). Evidence in support of kin selection and avuncularity includes the fact that homosexuals seem to be more empathic and altruistic than heterosexuals. Other studies have not confirmed behaviors that increase kin altruism in homosexuals. We explored altruistic behavior and avuncularity in a sample of 278 subjects, either homosexual or heterosexual, from three populations: Italian, Spanish, and Urak-Lawoi, a Southeast Asian tribal population. Among the Urak-Lawoi, the kathoeys, androphilic men who dress and behave as women, were compared with heterosexuals. All populations were rated for societal norms on the expression of affiliative behavior. No greater kin altruism or avuncularity among the kathoeys or in homosexuals in either Mediterranean population was found. Greater avuncularity and kin-directed altruism, independent of sexual orientation, were found among the Urak-Lawoi, and these traits were the least prevalent among the Italians, corresponding to different societal norms. The increase in kin altruism and avuncularity was associated in all males with societal differences and norms on general altruism toward nonkin children, suggesting it is not an adaptive design to maintain homosexuality in humans.     

Deconstructing Reparative Therapy: An Examination of the Processes Involved When Attempting to Change Sexual Orientation

Reparative therapy is a process through which reparative therapists believe they can and should make heterosexuals out of homosexuals. At the present time, most professional regulating bodies have banned the use of reparative therapy. In addition, reparative therapy is not supported by any reliable quantitative or qualitative studies. In spite of the lack of empirical substantiation, reparative therapists continue to practice, arguing that prior quantitative studies, as well as client self-determination, validate their methods. With a knowledge base originally grounded in psychoanalytic theory, current applications of reparative therapy cross not only scientific and psychological, but also social, political, and religious boundaries. The current trend promoting reparative therapy occurs through the conglomeration of the social, political, and religious dimensions of organizations that champion the cause of creating former homosexuals. Persons who identify as former homosexuals espouse the saving graces of a mixture of reparative therapy with various forms of religious counseling, on occasion offered by faith-based providers. The purpose of this paper is shed new light on the process and theory behind reparative therapy. This paper will attempt to provide social work clinicians with the knowledge necessary to understand and formulate an informed opinion about the use of reparative therapy for homosexuality.     

Promoting tolerance for homosexuality: An evaluation of intervention strategies

This article presents a methodological critique of the few attempts to promote tolerance for homosexuality through education. The d statistic was utilized to assess the extent of attitude change from pre‐ to post‐intervention assessment. With few exceptions, data have been gathered from college students in courses focused on human sexuality. These data suggest that students who complete these courses become less fearful of contact with homosexuals, more tolerant of homosexuals in social roles, and more tolerant of homosexual behavior, although the extent and duration of the changes may be limited. Although some attribute attitude change to the intensiveness of the course, methodological and conceptual problems, including volunteer bias, provide alternative explanations. Further attempts to promote tolerance toward homosexuality must consider differences in attitudes toward gay men and lesbians and the extent to which men and women differ in their level of tolerance toward these groups.     

Personality and Sexual Orientation: Extension to Asexuality and the HEXACO Model

Previous research has examined self-identified sexual orientation in relation to self-reports on the Big Five personality factors. Here we extend this research by including asexuality as a fourth sexual orientation and by assessing the HEXACO personality factors, using self-report data from a large anonymous online sample (N ≈ 100,000). A large overlap was observed among all sexual orientation groups on all six HEXACO dimensions, but notable group differences also emerged. All nonheterosexual groups, particularly bisexual people, averaged higher in openness to experience than did heterosexuals. Heterosexual men averaged much lower in emotionality than heterosexual women, but only a small difference was observed between gay men and lesbians on this dimension. Asexual men and women averaged lower in extraversion and in some facets of emotionality (specifically, dependence and sentimentality) than did the other sexual orientation groups of the same sex. Results are discussed in relation to the different social realities that each sexual orientation group often experiences, along with the (gender-related) developmental influences hypothesized to underlie in part the origins of sexual orientation.     

Sexual diversity in urban Norwegians

The purpose of this study is to describe homosexual and heterosexual experiences in terms of sexual fantasies, sexual attraction, sexual conduct, and falling in love in an urban Norwegian population. In 1997, a random sample of 5,000 persons (18-49 years) was drawn from the population register in Oslo to participate in a sexual behavior survey. Data collection was carried out by means of postal questionnaires and 45% responded. The results indicated that exclusive homosexuality was rare in the population. One exception was the prevalence of homosexual fantasies in women. Compared to respondents who had had exclusively heterosexual contact, respondents reporting bisexual contacts had a significantly higher number of lifetime sex partners, higher frequency of anal and oral sex and masturbation, and lower age at orgasm and masturbation debut. What significantly separated the groups of exclusive heterosexuals, bisexuals, and exclusive homosexuals were attitudes towards various expressions of sexuality and number of lifetime sex partners.     

Sexual diversity in Urban Norwegians

The purpose of this study is to describe homosexual and heterosexual experiences in terms of sexual fantasies, sexual attraction, sexual conduct, and falling in love in an urban Norwegian population. In 1997, a randam sample of 5,000 persons (18–49 years) was drawn from the population register in Oslo to participate in a sexual behavior survey. Data collection was carried out by means of postal questionnaires and 45% responded. The results indicated that exclusive homosexuality was rare in the population. One exception was the prevalence of homosexual fantasies in women. Compared to respondents who had had exclusively heterosexual contact, respondents reporting bisexual contacts had a significantly higher number of lifetime sex partners, higher frequency of anal and oral sex and masturbation, and lower age at orgasm and masturbation debut. What significantly separated the groups of exclusive heterosexuals, bisexuals, and exclusive homosexuals were attitudes towards various expressions of sexuality and number of lifetime sex partners.     

Città Aperta o Cultura Chiusa?: The Homosexualization of Fascism in the Perverted Cultural Memory of the Italian Left

The essay analyzes the equation of Fascism and homosexuality offered by two founding works of the Italian left-wing Neorealist movement: Roberto Rossellini's film Roma, città aperta (1945) and Vasco Pratolini's novel Cronache di poveri amanti (1947). By identifying Fascism and homosexuality, both works limited their commemoration of the victims of Fascism to heterosexuals and contributed to the erasure of a gay and lesbian Holocaust from historical memory. As shown by Carlo Lizzani's film Celluloide (1996) and the coverage of the World Pride 2000 by the Communist daily Liberazione, briefly analyzed at the end of the essay, the Italian Left has still not found a satisfactory way of dealing with the homophobic legacy of Neo-realism.     

A Significant Shift: A Pentadic Analysis of the Two Rhetorics of the Post-Vatican II Roman Catholic Church Regarding Homosexuality

This paper argues that, since the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II), there has been a significant shift in the rhetorical stance of the Roman Catholic Church toward homosexuality in which the pre-council rhetoric, which condemned both act (i.e., homosexual behavior) and actor (i.e., the homosexual) has been replaced by two distinctly different rhetorics: a moral rhetoric, which continues the Church's long-standing condemnation of homosexual acts as sins, and a pastoral rhetoric, which argues that homosexuals should be ministered to and embraced. A Burkean pentadic analysis is used to define how the two rhetorics differ from each other and from the earlier rhetoric. The three major influences (i.e., Scripture, Tradition, and Catholic theology/philosophy) that have shaped, and continue to shape, the Church's position regarding homosexuality are described. Some of the socio-political implications of this shift are emphasized.     

QUEER TREASONS: HOMOSEXUALITY AND IRISH NATIONAL IDENTITY

Queer Treasons suggests how and why homosexuality has been placed outside the limited discourse of what constitutes ‘Irishness.’ I argue that, since the early part of the twentieth century, homosexuality has been represented as ‘foreign’ to nationalisms in Ireland, particularly when the borders of the nation are perceived to be under threat. I further suggest that the threat of homosexuals, as represented in Irish political discourse, points more generally toward an instability in the discourses of nation itself.     

Black heterosexuals’ attitudes toward lesbians and gay men in the United States

Although the direction and intensity of Black heterosexuals’ attitudes toward homosexuality have been topics for considerable speculation, empirical data from representative samples previously have not been available. In the current article we report findings from a two‐wave telephone survey with a national probability sample of 391 Black heterosexual adults. Results indicated that negative attitudes toward homosexuality are widespread but do not appear to be more prevalent among Blacks than among Whites. Gender differences in Black heterosexuals’ attitudes (men's attitudes toward gay men were more negative than their attitudes toward lesbians or women's attitudes toward gay men) appeared to result primarily from men's greater tendency to regard male homosexuality as unnatural. The single most important predictor of attitudes was the attribution of choice to sexual orientation: Respondents who believed that homosexuality is beyond an individual's control expressed significantly more favorable attitudes toward gay men and lesbians than did respondents who regarded homosexuality as a choice. Consistent with previous research in predominantly White samples, respondents were more likely to express favorable attitudes if they were highly educated, unmarried, politically liberal, registered to vote and not religious, and if they included Blacks in their concept of gay men. In addition, respondents reported more favorable attitudes if they had experienced personal contact with gay men or lesbians, but this was not a significant predictor of attitudes when other variables were statistically controlled. Possible differences between Blacks’ and Whites’ social constructions of sexual orientation are discussed.     

Societal relationships and gender role in homosexuals: A cross‐cultural comparison

The proposition that feminine gender role in male homosexuals is a function of societal sex roles and attitudes toward homosexuality, as well as parental factors, was examined by administering tests of gender role, gender role conservatism, and attitudes toward parents to a sample of 176 Swedish and 163 Australian homosexual men. With homosexuality constant, it was found that feminine gender identity was more characteristic of the homosexuals in the more gender‐role rigid and anti‐homosexual society (Australia), independent of differences in perceptions of parents. This was taken to indicate support for the hypothesis that in anti‐homosexual societies with rigid gender roles, opposite‐sex gender identity in homosexuals will be, to some degree, a function of believing that heterosexual relationships are the only appropriate ones, and that individuals who are homosexual will thus validate same‐sex preference by opposite‐sex identification. The findings also support the more general hypothesis that gender role is based on societal, as well as parental, models.     

Homosexualities in the Netherlands

Loving relationships between two men, or between two women, are by no means generally accepted in the Netherlands. Prejudices, mistrust, and aversion on the part of those surrounding them are the daily lot of homosexuals. Young people who are attracted to members of their own sex have understandable difficulties in dealing with this state of affairs. Becoming aware of their own homosexual feelings, looking for contact, building up relationships, developing a measure of self-esteem—all become especially difficult when there is little support, understanding, and no role models for homosexual lifestyles to be found in the immediate environment.In this article we will successively examine the attitudes of the Dutch population toward homosexuality and the living situation of homosexuals in the Netherlands. A more detailed report will be given of a comparative investigation of homosexual and heterosexual boys and girls carried out by the author.     

Swinging: A replication and test of a theory

Traditional sex‐role stereotypes suggest that men and women engage in sex for different reasons. Previous studies have supported the notion that women are more motivated by emotional expression in having sex, and men are more concerned with physical gratification. In a survey of sexual behavior, heterosexual and homosexual respondents were asked to rate the importance of a variety of reasons for having sex and not having sex. The results showed that men and women differed in the importance attached to emotional and physical motives, with gender differences appearing in both heterosexuals and homosexuals. Certain practical motives (e.g., to reproduce, fear of AIDS, fear of pregnancy) differentiated between homosexuals and heterosexuals. Motivations predicting frequency of sexual behavior in the last month depended on the relationship status of the respondent. These findings, although suggesting that gender differences in motivations for sex persist in all kinds of relationships, point to many similarities among gay and straight men and women in reasons for having sex and limiting sexual activity.     

Homophobia: a challenge for psychosocial nursing

1. In 1975, the American Psychological Association stated that homosexuality was not a disorder and that homophobia was a form of prejudice based on stereotypes. 2. Because homophobia, like racism or sexism, is learned, it can be unlearned. 3. People who feel homosexuality is a choice hold more negative attitudes toward individuals who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgendered. 4. Homophobia not only damages individuals who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgendered, but also limits heterosexuals by locking them into rigid gender-based roles.