Femininity Ideology and Sexual Health in Young Women: A focus on Sexual Knowledge,Embodiment, and Agency

ABSTRACT

Traditional femininity ideology is associated with diminished sexual agency in women; yet we know little about its connection to sexual knowledge or experiences of one's body during sex. This study examined how femininity ideology related to sexual health knowledge, body comfort during sex, condom self-efficacy, and sexual assertiveness in college-age women. Femininity ideologies were related to decreased sexual-risk knowledge and lowered body esteem during sex. Femininity ideologies were also related to decreased sexual assertiveness and condom use self-efficacy. Results highlight the importance of understanding the association between femininity ideologies and sexual knowledge acquisition as an aspect of sexual agency, as well as sexual embodiment, in addition to the more commonly studied sexual self-efficacy and assertiveness.     

ADOLESCENT GENDER IDEOLOGY SOCIALIZATION: DIRECT AND MODERATING EFFECTS OF FATHERS' BELIEFS

Previous research examining the intergenerational transmission of gender ideology focuses generally on the influence of mothers' beliefs. This article extends the understanding of gender ideology construction and transmission in two important ways. Utilizing data from the child sample of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (N = 206), we examine the construction of adolescent gender ideology via mothers' and fathers' gender beliefs. Further, we consider the interaction between maternal and paternal ideologies as they influence adolescent ideology. Findings suggest that paternal ideology plays a strong role in adolescent ideology formation, both directly and as a moderator of maternal influence.     

Spiritual but not religious seek unrestricted connection to selves,others, and earth: Formative research on the explosive growth of an ‘inactive public’ beyond the organization

In the last half century, we have observed an explosive growth in individuals who identify as spiritual but not religious. Today, over one in four U.S. adults fall into this category. This phenomenon is an influential component of our modern and changing society, as spiritual beliefs are associated with health, well-being, goals, feelings, and attitudes. In this formative research study, we apply the public relations’ approach of Sense-Making of an ‘inactive public’ beyond the organization to explore how these individuals define themselves, how their beliefs influence their behaviors (such as political, environmental, communal) and how they feel they are perceived by those around them. Amongst others, our main findings reveal that the spiritual but not religious have disparate specific beliefs and often struggle or resist articulating who they are, yet more broadly share a common belief in connection to others, the natural environment, and one’s self. The majority emphasize acceptance, tolerance, compassion, and the importance of each individual embracing their own spiritual positions. The participants report feeling misunderstood, misrepresented, or ignored by others and media, and that their behaviors (perspective on the world, actions, political ideologies, etc) are influenced by their spiritual beliefs.     

UNRAVELING RELIGIOUS WORLDVIEWS: The Relationship between Images of God and Political Ideology in a Cross‐Cultural Analysis

Not only do few studies address the issue of how religious belief relates to political ideology, but little attempt has also been made to analyze this relationship from a comparative perspective. Using data from the International Social Survey Program, we examine how images of God, as measured by God's perceived level of engagement and authority, relate to political ideology in seven Western industrial and postindustrial societies. We find that variation in images of God has no effect on whether individuals are politically liberal or conservative in five of seven countries. Nonetheless, beliefs about God are strongly related to abortion and sexual morality attitudes in every country, but only sporadically related to ideas about social and economic justice. In the end, we argue that theological beliefs tend to be unrelated to a general measure of political ideology, not because religious beliefs are politically unimportant in these societies, but rather because religious perspectives are rarely fully liberal or conservative in their political orientation. In addition, we find that Americans hold unique views of God in comparison to other countries in our sample and that the American tendency to view God as more active and authoritative affects policy attitudes in ways contrary to the effects of church attendance.     

Sexual Education,Gender Ideology,and Youth Sexual Empowerment

Sexual education plays an essential role in preventing unplanned pregnancy and the transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). School-based sexual education programs, in particular, may be well positioned to address social factors that are empirically linked to negative sexual health outcomes, such as traditional social norms surrounding gender and sexuality. However, youth are seldom granted access to sexual education programs that explicitly address these issues. This study presents findings from a pretest–posttest survey of a sexual education program that did. It was designed for eighth graders (N=95) in the context of a school–community collaboration. The study assessed the links between several components of sexual empowerment, including gender ideology, sexual knowledge, and contraceptive beliefs. Findings link participation in the sexual education program to more progressive attitudes toward girls and women, less agreement with hegemonic masculinity ideology, and increases in sexual health and resource knowledge. Structural equation models suggest that traditional attitudes toward women were significantly related to hegemonic masculinity ideology among both boys and girls, which was in turn negatively related to safer contraceptive beliefs.     

Dysfunctional sexual beliefs as vulnerability factors to sexual dysfunction

The differences on sexual beliefs presented by men and women with sexual dysfunction and their sexually functional counterparts were investigated. A total of 488 participants (160 females and 232 males without sexual problems and 47 females and 49 males with a DSM-IV diagnosis of sexual dysfunction) answered the Sexual Dysfunctional Beliefs Questionnaire. Findings showed that, although effects have only reached statistical significance for the female group, both dysfunctional men and women endorsed more sexual dysfunctional beliefs than functional. Women presented significantly more age related beliefs (after menopause women loose their sexual desire, as women age, the pleasure they get from sex decreases) and body image beliefs (women who are not physically attractive cannot be sexually satisfied). Additionally, sexually dysfunctional males presented higher scores (not statistically significant) on 'macho' belief (a real man has sexual intercourse very often) and the beliefs about women satisfaction (the quality of the erection is what most satisfies women). Overall, findings support the idea that sexual beliefs may play a role as vulnerability factors for sexual dysfunction.     

Examining the links between beliefs and institutional emergence

Although the study of institutions is one of the longest standing sociological topics, numerous recent studies have revisited questions about the genesis of new institutions and institutional domains. In this review, I argue for increased attention to the role cultural beliefs play in the emergence of new institutions. I highlight three substantive research areas where sociologists have demonstrated a relatively independent causal effect of beliefs on the genesis of new institutions: (a) studies of states and state institutions; (b) studies of emergent markets; and (c) studies of the charitable aid sector. I conclude by highlighting promising avenues for future research on beliefs and institutional emergence.     

The Adaptation of Western Management Ideologies: The Revised Capitalism of Keizai Doyukai in Postwar Japan

Abstract:  Keizai Doyukai (The Japan Committee for Economic Development) proposed a unique management ideology known as "revised capitalism" immediately after World War II. Doyukai was a totally new business association established by young managers in 1946, and this was in sharp contrast with Keidanren, which evolved from its prewar predecessor. The concept of revised capitalism consisted in the equilibrium of management, labor, and capital on an equal power basis, and had a solid theoretical foundation. Although it was an important milestone in the history of management ideology, it has been misinterpreted to date. In particular, it is commonly believed that Banjo Otsuka, one of Doyukai's inaugurators, imitated the ideas of Western management thought in Burnham's The Managerial Revolution and Berle and Means's The Modern Corporation and Private Property in formulating revised capitalism. This comparative analysis reveals otherwise. I hold that Otsuka enhanced the role of labor and blended the prewar management thought of Japan with the ideologies of Burnham and of Berle and Means. The role of labor was critical because the initial occupation policy of SCAP (Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers) encouraged the labor movement. It also explains why revised capitalism disappeared so rapidly once SCAP changed its policy and started to suppress labor unions in 1948. In broader terms, this analysis has two theoretical implications: that political context can strongly influence the rise and decline of a management ideology; and that a management ideology can retain certain traditional elements even under radical political changes.     

EU ideology

The idea of Europe was radically transformed after the accomplishment of the idea of European unification. The European Union (EU) and Europe at the beginning of the twenty-first century were defined by a broad common ideology that consists of ideologies such as antinationalism, social democracy, pacificism and environmentalism. These ideologies are presented by pro-EU scholars and politicians as ideologies rooted in European history and parts of European identity and as being mostly absent in the American policies. The emergence of EU ideology is traced in the relaunch of European integration in the mid-1980s and in Delors’ conflict with Thatcher. It is argued that the emergence of EU ideology is the result of two long-term historical developments: the deepening and enlargement of European integration; and the changing relations between the USA and Europe. It is concluded that the emergence of EU ideology resembles the emergence of nationalism and national ideologies.     

Do hostile sexual beliefs affect men's perceptions of sexual-interest messages?

This study tested the distorted cognitions component of Hall and Hirschman's (1991) quadripartite model of sexual aggression. Men (N = 107) with and without hostile sexual beliefs viewed erotic slides with a female partner who provided one of four patterns of feedback: clear disinterest, token disinterest, compliant interest, and clear interest. Hostile men reported fewer differences between women, were unresponsive to their partner's perceived embarrassment, and reported a consistent positive mood regardless of her feedback. Conversely, nonhostile men were more responsive to feedback, mirrored the partner's embarrassment, and experienced a less positive mood when she communicated clear disinterest in the erotica. These findings support the distorted cognitions component of the quadripartite model of sexual aggression. The authors also discuss the strengths and limitations of this study's methodology.     

Premarital Sexual Attitudes and Behavior*

The purpose of this study is to add to adolescent sexuality theory by modifying and extending current theoretical models—especially those of Reiss (1967), Burr (1973), Reiss and Miller (1974), and Jessor and Jessor (1973). A total of 492 female and 308 male Canadian university and high school student respondents provided the data for this study. Reiss' Guttman scale of sexual permissiveness and a Guttman scale of intimacy of sexual behavior were used to operationalize the major dependent variables. Path analysis indicates substantial support for a normative-opportunity model based on Jessor and Jessor's (1973) “distal-proximal” model and question Reiss'(1967) assumption of “opposing institutions” and Reiss and Miller's (1974) emphasis on autonomy of individuals in explaining their sexual attitudes. The findings indicate the importance of the peer group in determining both sexual attitudes and behavior of individuals and the importance of frequency of dating in predicting individuals' sexual behavior.     

Ideologies of dedication vs. blueprints of expedience 1

The motivating role of ideology seems central to the antagonists in a polarizing conflict. Apartheid is frequently associated with an elaborate ideology of puritan calvinist authoritarianism, aimed at legitimating white domination, at least in the perception of its beleaguered defenders. However, it may be argued that compared with the role of ideologies in other conflict situations and dictatorships, the defence of White privileges does not represent a fixed belief system or the self‐delusion of a false consciousness, which constitutes both the strength and weakness of white South Africa at the same time. By allowing for ideological cleavages and tactical splits among its ruling group instead of an encapsulating monolithic static ‘siege culture’, the South African system of pragmatic racial domination is rather flexible in accommodating pressure and adjusting to new situations outside dogmatic and rigid ideologies.     

Counselors' Beliefs About Ritual Abuse: An Australian Study

ABSTRACT

This study compares the beliefs held by Center Against Sexual Assault (CASA) workers, psychiatrists, and psychologists about ritual abuse. These beliefs were examined across a number of dimensions, of which five are discussed here: definitions of ritual abuse; number of cases identified between 1985–95; belief of client statements; religious beliefs; and training in therapy for sexual assault. In spite of the literature indicating broad disagreement with the definition of ritual abuse in other studies, results indicate 70% of all counselors agreed with a single definition of ritual abuse, and 85% agreed that ritual abuse was an indication of genuine trauma. There were 153 cases of ritual abuse identified by counselors between 1985-1995. Not one of these counselors believed that any of the claims made by their clients were intentionally fabricated. Overall, the CASA workers were much more likely to believe their client's ritual abuse and marginally more likely to identify ritual abuse cases than other therapists. Religious beliefs had no relationship to the identification of ritual abuse. Training in recognition and treatment of sexual abuse was significantly positively related to the identification of ritual abuse cases.     

Child sexual abuse myths: attitudes, beliefs, and individual differences

Child sexual abuse myths comprise incorrect beliefs regarding sexual abuse, victims, and perpetrators. Relations among myth acceptance, responses to disclosure, legal decisions, and victims' subsequent psychological and health outcomes underscore the importance of understanding child sexual abuse myths. Despite accurate knowledge regarding child sexual abuse among many professional and other individuals, child sexual abuse myths persist. A Google search produced 119 child sexual abuse myths, some with overlapping themes. Coders grouped myths into four categories: (a) minimizations or exaggerations of the extent of harm child sexual abuse poses, (b) denials of the extent of child sexual abuse, (c) diffusions of perpetrator blame, and (d) perpetrator stereotypes. This review provides available data regarding the prevalence for these myths, empirical research that refutes or confirms myth categories, and considerations of cultural contexts and implications.     

Training Mental Health Professionals in Child Sexual Abuse: Curricular Guidelines

This study explored whether counseling practices with women survivors of child sexual abuse reflect the belief that women do not sexually abuse children. Canadian therapists (n?=?164) who work with women survivors of child sexual abuse were surveyed about their beliefs about what constitutes child sexual abuse, who commits child sexual abuse, and their practices regarding inquiries about abusive behavior. A majority self-reported that they ask women and think it is important to ask but most believe that clients will not spontaneously self-disclose inappropriate sexual thoughts or behaviors. How broadly or narrowly therapists defined child sexual abuse was not related to self-reported therapeutic discussion. Therapists demonstrated differential gender beliefs about child sexual abuse perpetration, but this did not relate to self-reported counseling practices. Implications for therapist education are discussed.     

To Refer or Not to Refer: Exploring Family Therapists' Beliefs and Practices Related to the Referral of Lesbian,Gay, and Bisexual Clients

This study explored how negative beliefs toward lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals and LGB clinical competence influenced family therapists' beliefs and practices regarding referring based on the sexual orientation of the client. The sample consisted of 741 experienced clinicians. The results of this study indicated that the majority of the participants believe it is ethical to refer LGB clients; however, most had never made such a referral. Furthermore, participants who had referred based solely on the client's sexual orientation reported higher levels of negative beliefs toward LGB individuals and lower levels of LGB clinical competence. Finally, negative beliefs toward LGB persons not only predicted the practice of referring, but also the belief that it is ethical to refer an LGB client.     

Socializing Children About Family Structure: Perspectives of Lesbian and Gay Adoptive Parents

Despite increasing numbers of lesbian- and gay- (LG-) parent families, little research on LG-adoptive-parent families has examined parental beliefs and perceptions related to discussing their sexual minority status with their children. This study assessed 266 LG adoptive parents (160 lesbian mothers, 106 gay fathers) from the Modern Adoptive Families (MAF) study, a nationwide survey (2012–2013) of adoptive parents' pre- and post-placement experiences. A cultural socialization lens provided the framework for examining LG parenting beliefs and practices. Two measurement scales were developed to examine parents' perceptions and self-efficacy related to socializing their child about being in a sexual-minority-parent family. Results indicate that LG parents endorse the importance of unique socialization practices and generally feel confident engaging in these practices. Parent education, transracial adoption, endorsement of racial socialization, and socialization self-efficacy were positively associated with endorsement of socialization practices. Excellent reliability suggests the 2 scales have the potential of being psychometrically sound instruments with which to measure parental endorsement and related self-efficacy of socialization practices for families headed by sexual minority parents. Findings contribute to a deeper understanding of socialization and communication patterns in LG-headed families, especially those formed through adoption. Research, policy, and practice implications are discussed.     

Risk and Ideology in Sexual Harassment

One explanation of sexual harassment is that it is the result of differences in organizational or individual authority between harasser and victim. A competing conceptualization suggests that much of what is termed sexual harassment is the result of a particular definition of the situation by women possessing nontraditional or feminist gender-role ideologies. Using a sample of university faculty, students and staff, this study examines the relationship among organizational position, demographic risk factors, and gender-role ideology on the self-reported incidence of sexual harassment. The findings show little relation exists between the various risk factors and the report of harassment in this sample.