Hyperfemininity: Measurement and initial validation of the construct

Asocial control model of rape proposes that there are societal mechanisms including rape in place to maintain the power imbalance between males and females. One of the forces that perpetuates the problem of rape is traditional gender‐role socialization. A gender‐role model of rape characterizes males as aggressive initiators of sexual activity and women as passive participants. Research has established a link between extreme adherence to a male gender role and experience with sexual aggression; it has been proposed that females learn attitudes about sexuality that might negatively influence their sexual experiences as well, but there is little research to support such a proposal. In the present study, “hyperfeminine” women were hypothesized to indicate particular traditional attitudes and beliefs regarding the rights and roles of women that would have implications for male‐female relationships. The development of a scale to measure hyperfemininity is reported, and several studies are presented that provide initial evidence that the Hyperfemininity scale is both valid and reliable. Hyperfemininity was found to be associated with attitudes supportive of a traditional feminine gender role; these attitudes, in turn, were found to be related to adversarial sexual attitudes and traditional feminine achievement ideals. The possible origins of hyperfeminine attitudes and their role in helping to institutionalize the problem of rape are discussed.     

Gender-Specificity of Women's and Men's Self-Reported Attention to Sexual Stimuli

Men's sexual arousal is largely dependent on the actor's gender in a sexual stimulus (gender-specific), whereas for women, particularly androphilic women, arousal is less dependent on gender (gender-nonspecific). According to information-processing models of sexual response, sexual arousal requires that attention be directed toward sexual cues. We evaluated whether men's and women's self-reported attention to sexual stimuli of men or women were consistent with genital responses and self-reported arousal. We presented gynephilic men (n = 21) and women (n = 22) and androphilic men (n = 16) and women (n = 33) with audiovisual stimuli depicting men or women engaged in sexual activities. Genital responses were continuously recorded and, following each stimulus, participants reported the amount of attention paid to the video and feelings of sexual arousal. Self-reported attention was gender-specific for men and gender-nonspecific for women, and generally mirrored genital responses and self-reported arousal. Gender-specificity of genital responses significantly predicted gender-specificity of self-reported arousal; however, for men only, this effect was significantly mediated by gender-specificity of self-reported attention. Gender differences in gender-specificity of sexual arousal may be partially accounted for by differences in gender-specificity of self-reported attention, although attention may play a greater role in men's sexual arousal than women's.     

Observational Stance as a Predictor of Subjective and Genital Sexual Arousal in Men and Women

Observational stance refers to the perspective a person takes while viewing a sexual stimulus, either as a passive observer (observer stance) or an active participant (participant stance). The objective of the current study was to examine the relationship between observational stance and sexual arousal (subjective and genital) across a range of sexual stimuli that do or do not correspond with a participant's sexual attraction (preferred or nonpreferred stimuli, respectively). Regression analyses revealed that, for men (n = 44), participant stance significantly predicted subjective and genital arousal. Women's (n = 47) observer and participant stance predicted subjective arousal but not genital arousal. Analysis of variance showed that participant stance was greatest under preferred sexual stimuli conditions for all groups of participants, while observer stance scores revealed a less consistent pattern of response. This was particularly true for opposite-sex-attracted women, whose ratings of observer stance were lowest for preferred stimuli. Observational stance does not appear to account for gender differences in specificity of sexual arousal; for men, however, participant stance uniquely predicted genital response after controlling for sexual attractions. Similarities in the relationships between men's and women's observational stance and sexual responses challenge previous claims of gender differences in how men and women view erotica.     

Women's Critical Responses to Sexually Explicit Material: The Role of Hyperfemininity and Processing Style

Previous research on women's responses to male-targeted sexually explicit material (SEM) suggests that women may be critical toward such content. However, women's critical responses to SEM have not been explained empirically. The present study had two goals: (1) to investigate whether women's critical responses to male-targeted SEM depend on individual differences in gender role orientation (i.e., hyperfemininity) and (2) to explain the effect of hyperfemininity on critical responses to SEM by looking at the way sexual material is processed. In an online experiment among women aged 18 to 30 (N = 195), both the type of SEM (a male- versus female-targeted erotic story) and processing style (stimulus- versus response-focused) were manipulated. In addition, participants were divided into three groups based on low, moderate, or high hyperfemininity. When using stimulus-focused processing (i.e., attending to the characters and situational context of the story), women were more critical toward male-targeted SEM (relative to female-targeted material), but only when they had low and moderate degrees of hyperfemininity.     

Sexual Desire Among an Online Sample of Men Sexually Attracted to Children

ABSTRACT

Sexual attraction to children occurs in roughly 3 to 9 percent of the population. However, most knowledge about such desires comes from forensic samples, and most studies fail to assess preferred sexual activity and sexual partner. A new multimodal assessment of sexual desire was used to investigate interest in consensual and nonconsensual sex with adults and children in an online sample of men sexually attracted to children (n = 101). Desires were compared across history of sex offending behavior and preferred gender of child victim. Men who have and have not acted on their sexual attractions to children reported similar levels of sexual desire. Men primarily attracted to girls reported greater desire for sex with adults than did men primarily attracted to boys. Results highlight the heterogeneity of men sexually attracted to children as well as possible distinctions across gender of children to whom they are primarily attracted.     

Predicting responses to sexually aggressive stories: the role of consent,interest in sexual aggression,and overall sexual interest

Measures of interest in sexual aggression and overall sexual interest were used to predict men s responses to consensual and nonconsensual stories that contained forceful sexual content. College males (N = 108) listened to these stories and completed questionnaires assessing self-reported sexual arousal and desire, their perceptions of the woman s enjoyment and sexual desire in the stories, their likelihood of acting like the man in the stories, and how likely they would be to read similar stories. Multiple regression analyses revealed that overall sexual interest variables were significant predictors of responses to both consensual and nonconsensual stories, while interest in sexual aggression predicted responses to only the nonconsensual story. The present study highlights the importance of considering overall sexual interest measures in sexual aggression research.     

Predicting responses to sexually aggressive stories: The role of consent,interest in sexual aggression,and overall sexual interest

Measures of interest in sexual aggression and overall sexual interest were used to predict men's responses to consensual and nonconsensual stories that contained forceful sexual content. College males (N = 108) listened to these stories and completed questionnaires assessing self‐reported sexual arousal and desire, their perceptions of the woman's enjoyment and sexual desire in the stories, their likelihood of acting like the man in the stories, and how likely they would be to read similar stories. Multiple regression analyses revealed that overall sexual interest variables were significant predictors of responses to both consensual and nonconsensual stories, while interest in sexual aggression predicted responses to only the nonconsensual story. The present study highlights the importance of considering overall sexual interest measures in sexual aggression research.     

More Than Just Sex

Abstract

The purpose of this research was to identify behaviors in addition to those of an explicitly sexual or romantic nature that men and women define as unfaithful acts in the context of committed dating relationships. We also sought to identify possible gender differences in the proportions of men and women who have engaged in these unfaithful behaviors while in dating relationships. We examined 219 college men's and women's reported involvement in sexual behaviors, romantic attachments, sexual and nonsexual fantasies, sexual attraction, romantic attraction, flirting, and social participation in dyads and groups with someone other than their current or past dating partner. A sizable proportion of both men and women reported engaging in one or more of the behaviors at some point in their dating history. Proportionately more men than women indicated having engaged in sexual fantasies of various types about someone other than their primary partner and reported “hitting on” someone else while in a dating relationship. No other gender differences emerged. A unique aspect of this study is that we asked young men and women to determine what kinds of behaviors they considered to be unfaithful rather than only examining sexual and emotional behaviors as has been the case in past research. Further, the few significant gender differences we found indicates that the convergence of men's and women's attitudes about sexuality may now be show in their behavior.     

Sexual Fantasies and Gender/Sex: A Multimethod Approach with Quantitative Content Analysis and Hormonal Responses

Research links explicit sexuality (e.g., physical attraction and pleasure) to high testosterone (T) and nurturance (loving contact) to low T. Engaging in sexual fantasy, which can include explicit sexual and nurturant elements, increases T in women but not in men. We examined whether individual differences in the explicit sexual and nurturant content of fantasy were linked with T or with estradiol (E₂). In addition, we explored whether fantasy content differed or overlapped by gender/sex. Participants (26 women, 23 men) provided saliva samples for hormones before and after imagining a self-defined positive sexual encounter and responding to open-ended questions about the situation they imagined. We systematically content-coded responses for explicit sexual and nurturant content. In men, lower inclusion of nurturant content predicted larger T responses to fantasy. Fantasy content was not linked with T in women or with E₂ in women or men. Women and men did not differ significantly in explicit sexual and nurturant content. Our findings suggest that individual experiences of fantasy as more or less nurturant affect T in men, provide support for the Steroid/Peptide Theory of Social Bonds, and highlight the value of integrating hormones and content analysis to investigate research questions relevant to sexuality and gender/sex.     

Psychiatric Symptoms and Same-Sex Sexual Attraction and Behavior in Light of Childhood Gender Atypical Behavior and Parental Relationships

This study explores the relation between the level of current symptoms of depression and anxiety and recalled childhood gender atypical behavior (GAB), and quality of relationships with parents among men and women who reported same-sex sexual attraction or engaged in same-sex sexual behavior and men and women who did not. Matched pairs, 79 men (n = 158) and 148 women (n = 296), with equal levels of GAB were created of Finnish participants with either same-sex sexual attraction or behavior and participants without. The measures used were retrospective questionnaires. Ratings of maternal and paternal over-control and coldness differed as a function of same-sex sexual attraction or behavior. Childhood GAB was correlated with negative ratings of parental relationships. Both same-sex sexual attraction or behavior and a history of childhood GAB affected the reported levels of current depression and anxiety. Only gender typical participants with no same-sex sexual attraction or behavior reported significantly lower levels of symptoms. The findings suggest that childhood GAB is related to later distress both among hetero- and homosexual individuals. The elevated level of psychological distress among homosexual individuals, reported in several studies, might—to some extent—be caused by their generally higher levels of childhood GAB as opposed to a homosexual orientation per se.     

The sinfulness of unwanted conception∗

The prevalence rates of unwanted sexual activity indicate that a substantial proportion of both men and women are at risk for experiencing unwanted (nonconsensual) sexual activity. However, little is known about the extent to which men and women consent to unwanted sexual activity, such as when a person indicates willingness to engage in a sexual activity at a time when he or she experiences no sexual desire. In the current study, 80 male and 80 female U.S. college students involved in committed dating relationships kept diaries of their sexual interactions for two weeks. More than one third (38%) of the participants reported consenting to unwanted sexual activity during this period. The most common motives for engaging in this behavior were to satisfy a partner's needs, to promote intimacy, and to avoid relationship tension. Most participants reported positive outcomes associated with these motives. The results indicate that previous estimates of the prevalence of unwanted (nonconsensual) sexual experiences may actually represent a confound of nonconsensual and consensual forms.     

The Relationship Between Nontraditional Gender Roles and Sexual Coercion

Social scientists have proposed that traditional gender role socialization contributes to sexual coercion. Data from 398 students at an eastern state university were used to examine (1) the incidence of women enacting nontraditional gender roles in dating and sexual interactions, (2) the relationship between women's enactment of nontraditional roles and their experiences with physical and nonphysical sexual coercion and (3) the incidence of men reporting nonphysical coercive strategies used by women to engage in sexual intercourse. Results showed that a majority of women had asked a man out for a date and shared or paid the entire expenses for a date and over one third had initialed a first sexual involvement with a man. No support was found for the view that women's enactment of nontraditional roles puts them at lower risk of sexual coercion. Women who reported more sex partners experienced significantly more incidents of both physical and nonphysical coercion than women with fewer sex partners. Subslantial proportions of men also reported that women tried to have sex with them by nonphysical coercive strategies. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for high school and college sex education courses.     

The alcohol contexts of consent,wanted sex,sexual pleasure,and sexual assault: Results from a probability survey of undergraduate students

Objective: To examine, in a probability sample of undergraduate students, characteristics of students’ most recent sexual experiences (including alcohol use) as well as their experiences with nonconsensual sex. Participants: In January and February 2015, 22,046 students were invited to participate in an anonymous, cross-sectional, Internet-based survey; 7,032 surveys were completed (31.9%). Methods: Measures included background characteristics (age, gender, sexual orientation), most recent sexual event items (sexual pleasure, wantedness, alcohol use), and experiences with nonconsensual sex (since college and lifetime). Results: Respondents reporting sober consensual sex were more likely to report higher levels of sexual pleasure and wantedness. Nonconsensual oral, vaginal, or anal penetration occurring during college were reported by 15.8% of women and 7.7% of men. Students more often told friends, partners, or family members and rarely disclosed to university faculty or police. Conclusions: Implications for campus policy and health education are addressed.     

Effects of sexual arousal on men's and women's behavior in sexual disagreement situations

A role‐play procedure was used to investigate the effects of acceptance of rape supportive beliefs (RMA), sexual intimacy, and sexual arousal on behavior in sexual disagreement situations. In Experiment 1, 67 college women role‐played their responses to their date's initial and continued unwanted sexual advances after viewing either an erotic or a neutral videotape. The women were more definite in their nonverbal responses to the “continued” than to the “initial” sexual advances. Low RMA women were less definite, and high RMA women were more definite, in their nonverbal refusals of unwanted intercourse than of unwanted breast fondling. Low RMA women were more definite in their verbal refusals after viewing the neutral than the erotic videotape. In Experiment 2, 78 college men role‐played their responses to their date's first and second refusal of their sexual advances. Men were less compliant in response to the first than to the second refusal. High RMA men who viewed the neutral film were less compliant than were low RMA men. However, high RMA men who viewed the erotic film were more compliant than high RMA men who viewed the neutral film. The men who viewed the neutral film were less compliant with refusals of breast fondling than with refusals of intercourse. Additionally, men who viewed the erotic film were more compliant with refusals of genital fondling than with refusals of intercourse. Finally, sexual experience and sex‐role ideology predicted when the man would try the same advances again.     

The periodic table model of the gender transpositions: Part II. Limerent and lusty sexual attractions and the nature of bisexuality

I propose a theory that puts the notion of two sexual attractions into a precise, testable form, and then I mesh it with the periodic table model of the gender transpositions described previously (Pillard & Weinrich, 1987). I define a limerent sexual attraction, active in eroticizing the physical and personality characteristics of a particular Limerent Object, and a lusty sexual attraction, active in producing erotic arousal when encountering a new Lusty Object. Three hypotheses then account for much of what we know about sexual orientation: (a) Limerence and lustiness are experienced by both men and women—but there is an average difference in the ease with which each can be elicited in a particular sex. Limerence is experienced by most women in our culture as an autonomously arising desire, whereas lustiness, when it occurs, is experienced mostly as a reaction to particular stimuli. Lustiness is experienced by most men in our culture as an autonomously arising desire, whereas limerence, when it occurs, is experienced mostly in reaction to particular stimuli. (b) In some people the limerent attraction can be indifferent (or nearly so) to the sex or gender of the Limerent Object. (c) The lusty attraction is rarely indifferent to the sex or gender of the Lusty Object. Individuals may vary in their readiness to respond to the two kinds of attraction. Some of this variability can be understood in the light of the periodic table model described previously, and some of it can be understood in the light of cultural conditioning and socialization. The result is a theory that deduces many of the major facts about sexual orientation from only a small number of hypotheses.     

Does Preterm Birth Affect Psychosexual Development? A Preliminary Exploration

Abstract

Infants born prematurely may lack full term exposure to the prenatal milieu responsible for late-term sexual differentiation, with possible consequences on psychosexual development. This study assessed gender identity, sexual orientation, and adult sexual responses in men and women born either preterm or full term. An online survey was administered to 106 biological males (36 preterm) and 195 biological females (64 preterm). Preterm women identified less exclusively as heterosexual and preterm men reported higher sex interest and shorter orgasmic latency. Preterm birth may interfere with typical prenatal sexual differentiation, with potential effects on sexual orientation and adult sexual responsivity.     

Non‐erotic thoughts: Content and relation to sexual functioning and sexual satisfaction

We examined the possible range of content of non‐erotic thoughts experienced during typical sexual activities with a partner. Undergraduate men (n = 47) and women (n = 50) were administered a measure of non‐erotic thought content, frequency, and anxiety, along with measures of sexual attitude, satisfaction, and functioning. Men were more likely to report performance‐related thoughts, and women were more likely to report thoughts about body image. However, men and women were equally likely to report thoughts about the external consequences of the activity (e.g., pregnancy, being caught) and the emotional consequences of the activity (e.g., morality, implications of the activity for the relationship). Women reported that their thoughts occurred more frequently and caused more anxiety. Greater thought frequency and greater anxiety over thoughts were associated with poorer sexual functioning for both men and women. For women, greater frequency of and anxiety evoked by thoughts was associated with lower sexual satisfaction. These data provide modest support for cognitive‐behavioral models of sexual dysfunction and indicate the importance of both examining a broad range of non‐erotic thought content and taking gender into account when applying these models to understanding and treating sexual difficulties.     

Young and Sexual in Norway and Croatia: Revisiting the Scandinavian Versus Mediterranean Gendered Pattern of Sexual Initiation

ABSTRACT

This article describes and analyzes patterns of first sexual intercourse and contraception use from a bicultural perspective. Study results are based on a 2009–2010 large-scale national probability survey of young adults aged 18 to 24 years in Croatia (n = 1,005) and Norway (n = 871). The findings corroborated the persistence of the dual model of sexual initiation in Europe (Scandinavian vs. Mediterranean), in which Norwegian women and Croatian men reported coital debut at an earlier age than their gender counterparts. Age difference between partners and the prevalence of condom use at first coitus were similar in both countries, with differences in contraceptive choices emerging with time. Young Norwegian men and women switched from using condoms to hormonal contraception when having been coitally active for some time. Interestingly, “the pill” remains rather unpopular among young Croatian women. Controlling for selected variables, using a condom at most recent sexual intercourse was significantly associated with condom use at first intercourse in all groups except Norwegian men, as well as with years of coital activity (except among Croatian men). Additionally, the odds of a condom being used at most recent intercourse were significantly correlated with same-sex sexual experience (only among Norwegian men) and with reporting the most recent intercourse with a casual partner (only among Norwegian participants). Country-specific patterns of contraceptive use are discussed in the context of public health and prevention.     

Who Adopts Queer and Pansexual Sexual Identities?

Some nonheterosexual individuals are eschewing lesbian/gay and bisexual identities for queer and pansexual identities. The present study aimed to examine the sexual and demographic characteristics of nonheterosexual individuals who adopt these labels. A convenience sample of 2,220 nonheterosexual (1,459 lesbian/gay, 413 bisexual, 168 queer, 146 pansexual, and 34 other “write-in”) individuals were recruited for a cross-sectional online survey. In support of our hypotheses, those adopting pansexual identities were younger than those adopting lesbian, gay, and bisexual identities, and those adopting queer and pansexual identities were more likely to be noncisgender than cisgender, and more likely to be cisgender women than men. The majority of pansexual individuals demonstrated sexual orientation indices within the bisexual range, and showed equivalent patterns of sexual attraction, romantic attraction, sexual behavior, and partner gender as bisexual-identified men and women. In contrast, three-quarters of queer men, and more than half of queer women, reported sexual attraction in the homosexual range. This study found that rather than a general movement toward nontraditional sexual identities, queer and pansexual identities appear most appealing to nonheterosexual women and noncisgender individuals. These findings contribute important information regarding who adopts queer and pansexual identities in contemporary sexual minority populations.