Measuring work stressors: The role of frequency, duration, and demand

In recent years a number of authors have suggested that progress towards a better understanding of the stressor-stress relationship can only be achieved by altering the way in which work stress is investigated. One strategy is to investigate what it is we are measuring when we assess work stressors. More particularly there is a need to use rating scales that measure demand associated with work roles rather than just imply it. Dimensions such as frequency, duration, and level of demand were measured in addition to the traditional method of simply asking individuals to indicate whether they agree/disagree that stressors are present at work. The results point to the incremental increase in variance explained when these additional facets are measured over and above the variance explained by traditional methods. This result confirms the ned to develop a better understanding of the concept of demand, the difference between chronic and acute stressors, and the interaction effects of the different facets.     

Understanding the experience of stressors: The use of sequential analysis for exploring the patterns between various work stressors and strain

The availability of traditional self-report instruments for measuring work stressors may have diverted attention from exploring the way in which different stressors relate to one another. In order to develop a better understanding of the nature of the stressor experience a study was undertaken to explore the stressor-strain relationship using sequential tree analysis, a stepwise procedure that provides a “visual display” of the patterns and associations between stressors and strains. The study employed a sample of 695 principals and deputy principal teachers of secondary schools in New Zealand, who received a questionnaire measuring stressors and strains. SPSS AnswerTree® (version 2.0.1) was used to identify the patterns of association. The patterns of stressors that emerge from this analysis were used in a didactic or illustrative way to identify issues of measurement that may need to be resolved in order to derive a better understanding of the stressor experience. Different stressor patterns were associated with different levels of, but lower levels of strain were not simply the obverse of those stressors that cause higher levels of strain. Two not mutually exclusive issues emerge from the results, suggesting that stressor measurement practices may need to be reviewed. The first includes structural level issues such as considering the number, type, and potency of different stressors. The second includes issues best described as conditions of association. These concern understanding why different stressor patterns form, the relationship between stressors in those patterns, and the potency of patterns.     

Combined workplace stressors and their relationship with mood, physiology, and performance

The majority of working individuals are exposed to low levels of a large number of potential stressors. Although each is unlikely to be particularly detrimental in itself, such stressors may be harmful cumulatively. The aim of this study was to investigate whether exposures to combinations of stressors were associated with harmful levels on some measures of mood, physiology, and performance. The study was conducted with 84 participants, all employed, mostly “white-collar” workers. A questionnaire was administered and physiological outcome measures were taken on four occasions: before and after work on the first and last days of one working week (repeated measures, within-subjects factor). Workers were categorized as exposed to either: (1) no stressors, (2) temporal stressors only, (3) physical stressors only, or (4) both temporal and physical stressors (between-subjects factor). Data were analysed using mixed design ANOVAs. Key significant between-subjects effects were found for blood pressure and salivary cortisol; participants exposed to a combination of stressors had significantly elevated levels of both. The identified physiological differences are tentatively supported by the literature and can be explained by increased subjective stress levels. Significant differences in performance were not found. This may be explained by methodological issues, or participants' increased effort expended to perform on the tasks. It is concluded that the consideration of combined (low level) stressors and cumulative exposure is important in assessing the health risk associated with the work environment.     

Discrepancies between chronological age and personal age as a reflection of unrelieved worker stress

Abstract

The general proposition that stress-related variables will be associated with discrepancies between chronological age and perceived personal age of working adults was examined. Responses from a field survey of day, afternoon, and night fixed-shift workers in a large manufacturing organization (n = 1674) were used to explore the relationships between a variety of reported stress-related variables and personal age constructs. Discrepancies between perceived personal age and chronological age were reported by a large proportion of the workers surveyed. Three categories of stress-related variables each accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in discrepancies. As hypothesized, the reported presence of stressors and the frequency/extent of strains (stress-related outcomes) were positively correlated with feeling older than one's chronological age. In addition, the reported presence of support mechanisms for coping with stressors was negatively correlated with feeling older than one's chronological age. The manner in which work and non-work stress may impinge upon personal age perceptions is discussed, and appropriate avenues for future research in this domain are considered.     

Relations between environmental problems,psychology and health among shift-workers in the Norwegian process industry

Abstract

A group of 89 male shift-workers, mean age 38 years, was examined for health complaints, subjective experience of their work environment, psychological defence strategies, and immunological factors. They worked in a process industry, controlling a complex chemical process partly by instruments and partly by direct checking of mechanical devices such as valves. Shifts were eight hours long and changed every second week.

The main problem areas identified were problems with the management, colleagues and superiors, feelings of being under-valued, time pressure, fear of making mistakes, and lack of influence and communication. The main health complaints were sleep disturbance and gastro-intestinal problems. Shift workers also complained about allergies, breathing difficulties, tension, anxiety and depression. There were no pathological levels of plasma immunoglobulins (Ig) or Ig complements. However, levels did correlate with experience of work-related problems and with measures of defence mechanisms. Up to 25% of the variance in die immunological indicators was explained by a combination of defence mechanism scores and those of perceived health and work problems. This suggests that immunoglobulins may be an indicator of work-related health risks (‘stress’), even if the level of explained variance is too low to use immunoglobulins alone as a ‘marker’. The same variables, and immunoglobulins, also related significantly to perceived health. This may be a particularly important indicator, and when combined with immunology and psychological variables, also as a risk factor for organic disease.     

It's all about me: The role of narcissism in exacerbating the relationship between stressors and counterproductive work behaviour

Although studies have found that personality variables moderate the relationship between stressors and counterproductive work behaviour, few have examined the role of narcissism and those that did have found inconsistent results. Using a sample of 515 United States employees, we found that narcissism moderated the relationships between interpersonal conflict at work and counterproductive work behaviours directed at others, and between organizational constraints and counterproductive work behaviours directed at the organization, making both relationships stronger for those high on narcissism. We also found that narcissism moderated the relationship between organizational constraints and counterproductive work behaviours directed at others. Further, we demonstrated that the grandiose exhibitionism facet of narcissism moderated these same stressor–counterproductive work behaviours relationships, whereas the facets of leadership/authority and entitlement/exploitiveness did not. Our study indicates that organizational scholars should examine narcissism as an important antecedent of work behaviour, and that research needs to consider potential differential prediction by each of its facets.     

Chronic strain, daily work stress and pain among workers with rheumatoid arthritis: Does job stress make a bad day worse?

The structure of the job and the daily experience of work are challenges for workers with rheumatoid arthritis. Yet little is known about how these two factors interact to put workers with chronic pain at risk for worse pain on a given day. This exploratory 20 workday diary study of 27 workers with rheumatoid arthritis used hierarchical linear modelling to examine how the structure of the job and neuroticism moderate the relationship between daily undesirable work events (daily stressors), and pain reports within a day. On days with more undesirable work events compared to days with fewer events, individuals with jobs associated with job 'strain' (high demand/low control) reported greater midday pain, irrespective of neuroticism and negative mood, than workers with other combinations of demand and control. These findings demonstrate the utility of analysing fluctuating within-person relationships among pain, mood and daily work stressors within the context of the structure of the job, and helps to explain why daily work stressors result in worse health outcomes for some but not all workers with RA.     

Chronic strain,daily work stress and pain among workers with rheumatoid arthritis: Does job stress make a bad day worse?

The structure of the job and the daily experience of work are challenges for workers with rheumatoid arthritis. Yet little is known about how these two factors interact to put workers with chronic pain at risk for worse pain on a given day. This exploratory 20 workday diary study of 27 workers with rheumatoid arthritis used hierarchical linear modelling to examine how the structure of the job and neuroticism moderate the relationship between daily undesirable work events (daily stressors), and pain reports within a day. On days with more undesirable work events compared to days with fewer events, individuals with jobs associated with job ‘strain’ (high demand/low control) reported greater midday pain, irrespective of neuroticism and negative mood, than workers with other combinations of demand and control. These findings demonstrate the utility of analysing fluctuating within-person relationships among pain, mood and daily work stressors within the context of the structure of the job, and helps to explain why daily work stressors result in worse health outcomes for some but not all workers with RA.     

Beyond demand and control: The contribution of organizational risk factors in assessing the psychological well-being of health care employees

Abstract

The job demand–control(–support) model is frequently used as a theoretical framework in studies on determinants of psychological well-being. Consequently, these studies are confined to the impact of job characteristics on worker outcomes. In the present study the relation between work conditions and outcomes (job satisfaction, emotional exhaustion, psychological distress, and somatic complaints) is examined from a broader organizational perspective. This paper reports on an analysis that examines both the unique and the additional contribution of organizational characteristics to well-being indicators, beyond those attributed to job characteristics. A total of 706 care staff from three public residential institutions for people with mental or physical disabilities in the Netherlands took part in this research. To assess organizational risk factors a measurement instrument was developed, the organizational Risk Factors Questionnaire (ORFQ), based on the safety-critical factors of the Tripod accident causation model. Factor analyses and reliability testing resulted in a 52-item scale consisting of six reliable sub-scales: staffing resources, communication, social hindrance, training opportunities, job skills, and material resources. These organizational risk factors explained important parts of the variance in each of the outcome measures, beyond that accounted for by demographic variables and job demand–control–support (JDCS) measures. Communication and training opportunities were of central importance to carers’ job satisfaction. Social hindrance, job skills, and material resources explained a substantial amount of unique variance on the negative outcomes investigated.     

Location of Inventories in an MRP Environment

Previous research on MRP systems has rarely considered at what level in a modular sub-assembly product structure to hold inventories. Based on a simulation study of an MRP environment, we show that the correct decision concerning where to hold inventory depends on the variance in end-item demand, the amount of inventory investment, and concomitantly, the desired level of customer service. In particular, for small investment in inventories and moderate end-item demand variance, it is equally effective to hold inventories at the subassembly level or the end-item level. But when end-item demand variance is high, subassembly level inventories are better. As inventory investment grows, however, it is best to use a diversified approach of holding both subassembly and end-item inventories, irrespective of end-item demand variance. The robustness of these conclusions is validated by simulating a hypothetical firm that also uses safety time to hedge against uncertainties.     

Perceptions of work stress in Australian firefighters

Abstract

This study surveyed 747 firefighters on their perceptions of work stress. The current emphasis in the fire brigades is on the management of traumatic or critical incident stress, but other work stressors may also be important. The firefighters rated their jobs as more stressful than other occupations, and psychological work stress as highest among a set of potential sources and types of stress. Although many factors were mentioned, the most frequently indicated stressors were associated with exposure to traumatic incidents such as major accidents or the suffering of others. Those who had previous experience with stress were more likely to rate current and future risk of stress as higher. Knowledge of existing organizational approaches to stress management was limited. The firefighters rated individual and informal sessions for dealing with stress as potentially more useful than the formal debriefing sessions now common in many emergency organizatins. Those who had previous experience with stress, however, were more likely to favour a formal organizational approach.     

The role of sense of coherence in well-being at work: Analysis of main and moderator effects

Abstract

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate the role of the sense of coherence (SOC) as a main effect on well-being and also its possible moderating role in the relationship between work characteristics and well-being in a sample of Finnish technical designers (n = 989). MANOVA/MANCOVA analysis with hierarchical decomposition was used so that the demographic variables (age, occupation gender) were controlled throughout. The results offered strong support for a main effect model of SOC: the stronger the SOC, the lower the level of psychosomatic symptoms and emotional exhaustion. Also, some support for a moderating role of SOC on the relationships between perceived work characteristics and well-being was found. However, these relationships explained only a small proportion of the variance of well-being was found. However, these relationships explained only a small proportion of the variance of well-being indicators. These results showed that the strong SOC subjects seemed to be better protected from the adverse effects of certain work characteristics (e.g. pressure of time). Furthermore, good social relations at work emphasized well-being among subjects with a very weak SOC, whereas these relations matered less in determining well-being outcomes in subjects with a stronger SOC. Finally, some work characteristics seemed to have salutary effects on well-being when accompained by a strong SOC and, on the contrary, pathogenic effects when accompained by a weak SOC.     

Abusive interaction and role state stressors: Relative impact on student residence assistant stress and work attitudes

Despite the recognition that poor working relationships can contribute to strain (Chen and Spector 1991, Cooper and Marshall 1978, Kahn and Byosiere lY92, Spector 1987, Spector et al. 1988) and increasing concern over violence and aggression in the workplace (Northwestern National Life Insurance Co. 1993), little research attention has been paid to hostile interpersonal interaction as a work-related stressor. While recent work has focused on interpersonal conflict and sexual harassment as stressors, emotionally abusive interactions have remained largely unaddressed by the organizational stress literature. These interactions are characterized by hostile verbal and non-verbal, non-physical behaviours directed by one or more persons towards another that negatively affect the target's sense of him/herself as a competent person and worker (Keashly et al. 1994, Leymann 1990). The current study examined whether emotional abuse contributed uniquely to understanding work-related stress in student residence assistants (RAs). Seventy-six RAs employed by a Canadian university responded to a questionnaire on the quality of their work experience. The stressors examined were role conflict, role overload, role ambiguity, and number, frequency, and impact of abusive events with dormitory residents. Outcome variables included job-related tension, job satisfaction, job commitment, and intention to leave. Emotional abuse contributed similar amounts of unique variance as the role state stressors to the variables of tension, job satisfaction and intention to leave suggesting emotional abuse is an important and uniquc workplace stressor. Implications of these findings for future research are discussed.     

Bricks without clay: On urban myths in occupational health psychology

Abstract

There is a lack of intricate research into the relationships between work performance and other variables. This study examined the causal relationship between work, non-work stressors, and work performance. Using longitudinal multi-group data from three groups—university staff, trainee nurses, and part-time employees (overall N=244)—structural equation modelling was employed to explore one-way and reverse competing models. The results produced a good fitting model with one-way causal paths from work-related and non-work stressors (time 1) to job performance (time 2). Nested model comparison analysis provided further evidence to support this best fitting model, emphasizing the strong influence that non-work factors have within the workplace. This study has important implications for theory, methodology and statistical analysis, and practice in the field of work-related stressors and performance.     

Stress,social support and psychological well-being in British accountants

Abstract

This paper reports an exploratory study of stress, social support and psychological well-being in British chartered accountants, using data from 399 self-report questionnaires. The results suggest that the underlying structure of stress in British accountancy can be explained by three dimensions; quantitative overload stressors, professional/administrative interface stressors and nuisance stressors. The underlying structure of social support for the sample can be represented by three dimensions of help support, social dependability and esteem support. Intensity of quantitative overload stressors, intensity of professional/administrative interface stressors and all three dimensions of support were found to be related to psychological well-being in the sample. Differences between these variables, types of organization and organizational position were examined. The results are discussed with reference to stress management interventions for accountants. Possible generalizations to other professional groups are discussed.     

The importance of knowing the affective meaning of job demands revisited

This paper starts with the assumption that when people are asked to describe the level of demands they face at work, it cannot be assumed that those demands are necessarily stressful, even if they are rated as strong or high demands. Thirty demand questions were designed for use with a sample of 2,253 public sector employees in Western Australia. As well as rating frequency of demand the respondents were asked to rate their level of dissatisfaction with the demand. For only 16 of the demands was there a correlation high enough to assume that the demand might be a stressor. Having demonstrated this, the rest of the paper compares different ways of combining the two scores to predict the level of psychological distress as measured by the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ12). The results support the claim in the title, that it is important to know the affective meaning of job demands.     

Job stress in managers,professionals, and clerical workers

Abstract

The intensity and frequency of occurrence of 30 job stressors as measured by the job stress survey (JSS) were examined in white-collar employees of a large manufacturing firm, consisting of 68 managers, 171 professional (mostly engineers), and 69 clerical personnel. The highest levels of stress intensity were attributed to ‘lack of opportunity for advancement’ and ‘poor or inadequate supervision’. Individual stressors rated as occurring most often during the past six months were ‘frequent interruptions', ‘meeting deadlines’, and ‘dealing with crisis situations’. Factor analyses of the ratings of individual job stressors identified two job-stress factors, job pressure and lack of support, which were differentially related to age, gender, occupational level, locus of control, and job tenure and satisfaction. All three occupational groups attributed greater intensity to stressors that reflected lack of organizational support than to job pressures. Managers reported experiencing job pressures more often than professionals/engineers, but attributed less stress intensity to these pressures. ‘Lack of opportunity for advancement’ and ‘inadequate salary’ were the most salient stressors for the clerical workers. Implications of the findings for the design of stress management and organizational change programmes were discussed.     

Psychophysiological reactions during the first year of a foreign assignment: Results of a controlled longitudinal study

Abstract

Previous studies reveal that employees are exposed to several potential stressors during foreign assignments. This prospective multidisciplinary study followed managers (expatriate group) before and during their first year of an international work assignment. Concurrently, a matched reference group that did not relocate was observed. The secretion of the stress-sensitive hormone prolactin increased in the expatriate group during the first year abroad, compared to the reference group. Selfesteem, family relations, language skills, decreased internal locus of control and job promotion explained 32% of the variance in serum prolactin levels. Lower self-esteem and sense of coherence was related to increased serum prolactin. Increased working hours were associated with decreased work satisfaction. Job promotion was not related to work satisfaction. Mental well-being decreased in the expatriate group, compared to the reference group. Individual factors such as a strong sense of coherence and social provision attenuated decreases in mental well-being. A significant increase in cigarette and alcohol consumption was found in the expatriate group during the first year abroad. This study indicates that there are important psychosocial determinants influencing psychophysiological response patterns in expatriates. The present results put into question the generalizability of the ‘culture shock’ syndrome. The results have practical implications for guiding expatriates on time-limited assignments.     

AN EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP OF UNCERTAINTY IN THE ENVIRONMENT TO INFORMATION USED BY DECISION MAKERS*

This paper discusses the relationship between uncertainty in a decision making environment and the desired characteristics of information used for decision making. The work is aimed at providing a better understanding of the variables that affect the design of Management Information Systems. An experiment was conducted using an inventory simulator. The subjects could decide on inventory control variables and the amount and type of information to be used in monitoring system performance. The demand for inventory was an external random variable under the control of the experimenter. The experiment investigated how different demand variances affected the decision information used, the decisions made, and the resulting decision effectiveness (cost.) It was found that decision review frequency was not affected by demand variability. However, age and degree of summary of information used were greatly affected. Subjects exposed to high variability used data with a shorter history and a higher level of detail than those exposed to low variability. It was also found that the number of reports used increased from the low to middle variance group, then decreased at very high variance. Subjects tended to “give-up” on their information system at high variance, and they relied on additional safety stock to prevent frequent stockouts. Finally, the correlation between the information used and decision effectiveness as measured by cost was low. This result was contrary to the subjects' beliefs that more and better information produced “better” decisions. It indicates that although variability may strongly affect preferences for different types of information, the information used may not in turn affect decision performance.     

Newsvendor Problems with Demand Shocks and Unknown Demand Distributions

In today's competitive market, demand volume and even the underlying demand distribution can change quickly for a newsvendor seller. We refer to sudden changes in demand distribution as demand shocks. When a newsvendor seller has limited demand distribution information and also experiences underlying demand shocks, the majority of existing methods for newsvendor problems may not work well since they either require demand distribution information or assume stationary demand distribution. We present a new, robust, and effective machine learning algorithm for newsvendor problems with demand shocks but without any demand distribution information. The algorithm needs only an approximate estimate of the lower and upper bounds of demand range; no other knowledge such as demand mean, variance, or distribution type is necessary. We establish the theoretical bounds that determine this machine learning algorithm's performance in handling demand shocks. Computational experiments show that this algorithm outperforms the traditional approaches in a variety of situations including large and frequent shocks of the demand mean. The method can also be used as a meta‐algorithm by incorporating other traditional approaches as experts. Working together, the original algorithm and the extended meta‐algorithm can help manufacturers and retailers better adapt their production and inventory control decisions in dynamic environments where demand information is limited and demand shocks are frequent