Measuring work stressors: The role of frequency,duration, and demand

Abstract

In recent years a number of authors have suggested that progress towards a better understanding of the stressor-stress relationship can only be achieved by altering the way in which work stress is investigated. One strategy is to investigate what it is we are measuring when we assess work stressors. More particularly there is a need to use rating scales that measure demand associated with work roles rather than just imply it. Dimensions such as frequency, duration, and level of demand were measured in addition to the traditional method of simply asking individuals to indicate whether they agree/disagree that stressors are present at work. The results point to the incremental increase in variance explained when these additional facets are measured over and above the variance explained by traditional methods. This result confirms the ned to develop a better understanding of the concept of demand, the difference between chronic and acute stressors, and the interaction effects of the different facets.     

Bricks without clay: On urban myths in occupational health psychology

Abstract

There is a lack of intricate research into the relationships between work performance and other variables. This study examined the causal relationship between work, non-work stressors, and work performance. Using longitudinal multi-group data from three groups—university staff, trainee nurses, and part-time employees (overall N=244)—structural equation modelling was employed to explore one-way and reverse competing models. The results produced a good fitting model with one-way causal paths from work-related and non-work stressors (time 1) to job performance (time 2). Nested model comparison analysis provided further evidence to support this best fitting model, emphasizing the strong influence that non-work factors have within the workplace. This study has important implications for theory, methodology and statistical analysis, and practice in the field of work-related stressors and performance.     

Effects of age and domestic commitment on the sleep and alertness of female shiftworkers

Abstract

In this study, the combined effects of age and domestic commitment on sleep duration, sleep difficulties and alertness in a sample of female shiftworkers were studied. A total of 572 nurses working in general hospitals in England completed a questionnaire. Two main shift systems were worked by the nurses: permanent nights or rotating shifts. Initial analysis revealed significant differences between these two groups of nurses, resulting in separate analysis of each group. Regression analysis showed that although older nurses had shorter sleep duration they did not report more sleep difficulties, in addition, their overall on-shift alertness was higher compared to younger nurses. Domestic commitment, defined as the number of dependants in the household and the level of perceived work-home conflict, not only reduced sleep duration, but also resulted in more sleep difficulties and lower on-shift alertness for most of the shifts. Two implications with regards to the relationship between age and sleep are discussed. First, the study points to the relevance of considering both biological and social factors when looking at age and sleep. Secondly, the study shows that the effects of age on sleep duration and sleep difficulties are not similar. This finding requires further research, especially in the light of the higher levels of alertness reported by older nurses.     

Work satisfaction,health, and stress: A study of Dutch nurses

Abstract

A study was conducted to compare nurses' work satisfaction and feelings of health and stress in five different nursing departments: a cardiac care unit and a general surgical ward in a general hospital; and an admissions department, a short-stay department, and a long-stay department in a psychiatric hospital. One hundred nurses took part in the study: the instruments used were questionnaires and structured interviews. The main results showed that:

(1) nurses in the cardiac care unit had the most positive satisfaction scores

(2) nurses in the general surgical ward had the most positive scores on the health and stress variables

(3) feelings of dissatisfaction and stress were most prominent in the short-stay department and, to a lesser extent, in the long-stay department.

The findings are interpreted in terms of the different work situations and die implications for hospital management are discussed.

Dr J. A. Landeweerd graduated in industrial and organizational psychology in 1968 (PhD in 1978). He has worked at Eindhoven University of Technology (Department of Industrial Engineering) and now holds a position as senior lecturer at Limburg University (Department of Health Sciences), where he is project-leader for a number of research projects on the relationships between work and health.

Nicolle Boumans, MA, graduated in health sciences in 1985 (specialization: nursing science) and is now a research assistant. She is working on a PhD thesis concerned with the relationship between task characteristics of nurses and their reaction in terms of job satisfaction, health and stress.     

Relations between stressors and group perceptions: Main and mediating effects

Most orgnizations these days utilize groups for the performance of at least some tasks. There is therefore a need to examine the relationthip between job stressors and group functioning. Until now it has been proposed that employees who perceive high levels of stress in their jobs will have negative perceptions of the groups in which they work, in the form of reduced altruism and collective efficacy. They may also have higher levels of psychological strain. This study examined relations between job-related stressors and group perceptions (collective efficacy 3rd the prevalence of altruistic behaviour) in a sample of 2403 mililitary personnel, comprising 31 companies in two US Anny combat brigades. We also examined whether group perceptions mediated the relationship between stressors and both job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Results indicated that stressors were negatively associated with measures of group perceptions, and both job satisfiction and well-being. Furthermore, mediated regression analyses suggested that relations between interpersonal conflict and both job satitfaction and well-being were partially mediated by both group perception measures. These finding suggest that work-related stressors may negatively impact on group functioning, which may lead to employee strains. Implications of these finding are discussed, and suggestions are made for future research.     

Four-stage process model of the core factors of burnout: The role of work stressors and work-related resources

The impact of work stressors and work-related resources on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, as the two core factors of burnout, is investigated. According to the German Action Regulation Theory work stressors are conceptualized as regulation problems that lead to work stress in terms of additional effort (e.g. working longer hours), increased intensity of effort (e.g. working at a faster pace), and risky action (e.g. by neglecting safety rules). Consequently, an extended process model consisting of objective work stressors, work stress, emotional exhaustion and depersonalization is proposed. Nurses from three general hospitals (N=482) provided data for evaluating this model. Complete mediation of work stress and emotional exhaustion were analysed by hierarchical regression analysis. The overall model was tested by structural equation analysis in two steps; in the first step the basic model was analysed while in the second step the model was extended by autonomy as a work-related resource. The process model could be confirmed with respect to: (1) the mediating function of work stress and emotional exhaustion, and with regard to (2) the direct impact of autonomy as a work-related resource on work stressors but not on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization. Methodological considerations and implications for work design and burnout prevention are discussed.     

Psychosocial work environment and mental health among travelling salespeople

Travelling salespeople have a rather unusual working environment, with long periods of absence from their firm and a low level of social contacts with colleagues. Furthermore, they are exposed to high demands in their work, which may conflict with a normal family life. In this paper a cross-sectional study of psychosocial work environment and mental health of Danish travelling salespeople is described. A sample of 1,306 travelling salespeople filled in a questionnaire (response rate 68%). The results indicate that poor mental health is associated with a number of demand indicators: number of working hours per week, number of customers per week, non-day work, and a high level of perceived job demands. On the other hand, the number of hours spent with customers per week is positively associated with mental health. The authors did not find the expected associations between poor mental health and several factors such as number of hours away from firm, nights away from home, and a low degree of perceived support from colleagues and superiors. It is concluded that the main stressors of travelling salespeople are long working hours, many customers, non-day work and high perceived psychological demands in general.     

Changing work environments: Innovative coping responses to occupational stress

To what degree do individuals adapt their work environments in response to occupational stress? The research reported below addresses this question through a qualitative questionnaire survey that assesses the extent to which innovation is used as a stress coping strategy amongst health care professionals (community and hospital nurses, administration workers and paramedics; N = 333). Overall, 32% of these workers reported a coping response subsequently coded as innovative, and significant between-occupational group differences in the frequency of usage were found. Overwork, procedural difficulties and dealing with others were the stressors eliciting the greatest number of innovative coping responses. The study indicated that such responses were perceived as an effective and important way of dealing with occupational stress. It is concluded that stress management programmes that encourage individuals to change workplace factors through innovation, would be a worthwhile addition to interventions that emphasize individual adaptation to stressful work environments.     

Are they lonely at the top? Social relationships and social support among Australian managers

This research tested the possibility that managers may be lonely at the top. A total of 572 Australian managers responded to a questionnaire-based survey. Results showed that social support was more frequently available from non-work relationships than from work relationships. The support available from work and non-work sources was also qualitatively different. Workplace relationships offered mainly distraction, whereas non-work sources also offered care, acceptance, and consolation. Within the workplace, co-workers were the primary source of support. Moreover, support for work stressors was received from within the workplace, or from a spouse or partner. However, support was seldom received from within the workplace for non-work stressors. Concerns about social relationships also contributed to most of the nominated stressful situations.     

Stress at sea: A review of working conditions in the offshore oil and fishing industries

Abstract

This paper reviews the literature available on the psychosocial aspects of the offshore oil and fishing industries. Both work sectors present unique problems for their employees and these are discussed with reference to risk and safety, accidents and injuries, occupational stressors, marriage and family life, noise, alcohol and drug abuse and personality. The paper concludes that although both occupations are intrinsically different, some psychosocial similarities can be observed.     

Editorial statement: Stress and work compensation

Shift work has been reported to predict health problems, and a possible explanation is that shift work may lead to poorer health habits, thereby increasing a person's vulnerability to illness. This study examined the association between shift work and health habits, as indicated by smoking, alcohol intake, physical activity and by being overweight. A questionnaire was sent to all 2795 female nurses working in the 10 hospitals of two Finnish health care districts. From the 2299 respondents, we selected those 506 shift workers who reported having always done shift work and those 183 day workers who had never done shift work. Shift workers were found to smoke more and to be overweight more often than day workers. These differences gradually increased in each successive age group, being 1.94 pack-years in smoking and 0.9 kg m^-2 in body mass index among nurses over 45 years of age. Shift work was not associated with alcohol intake or sedentary lifestyle. This evidence is compatible with the possibility that shift work in nurses increases smoking and being overweight to a degree that contributes to health problems, including coronary heart disease.     

The differential role of job demands in relation to nonwork domain outcomes based on the challenge-hindrance framework

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to meta-analytically test a novel theoretical model examining a dual stressor and dual process model relating demands in the work domain to outcomes in the nonwork domain. The foundation for this model rested upon the challenge-hindrance framework and the role depletion and role enhancement perspectives derived from role theory as applied to the work-nonwork interface. The results show mixed support for the proposed model. In line with the challenge-hindrance framework the effects of challenge stressors were less detrimental than hindrance stressors. However, contrary to what has been reported for work domain outcomes, the net effect of both challenges and hindrances on nonwork domain outcomes was negative. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

The influence of psychological stressors on myoelectrical signal activity in the shoulder region during a data entry task

Psychological stress is suspected to play a key role in the development of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs), and work pace may be a primary contributor. The purpose of this study was to observe how psychological stress affects muscle activity recorded from key muscles used to support the shoulder (the trapezius and levator scapulae muscles) during keying tasks. We hypothesized that muscle activity [amplitude of the myoelectric signal (MES)] would increase and the number of periodic rests in muscle activity ('EMG gaps') would decrease when computer work was performed at an increased pace, and with distractions in the environment. Ten healthy volunteers performed three typing tasks (N = no stress; I = stress induced by a work pace reward; IS = stress induced by a work pace reward plus irritation/distraction). Both muscles showed significant increases ( p < .05) in MES amplitude when comparing IS to the N and I conditions, whereas N and I were not different. There was significant reduction in the number of gaps observed during the I and IS conditions (essentially no gaps were observed) as compared to the N condition. Interestingly, MES amplitude measures were capable of preferentially detecting changes in activation due to the distraction stress, whereas the number of EMG gaps preferentially detected the stress of the increase in work pace. The effect of these stressors on heart rate and productivity are also discussed.     

Psychosocial safety climate as an antecedent of work characteristics and psychological strain: A multilevel model

Abstract

Psychosocial safety climate (PSC) refers to a specific organizational climate for the psychological health of workers. It is largely determined by management and at low levels is proposed as a latent pathogen for psychosocial risk factors and psychological strain. Using an extended Job Demands-Control-Support framework, we predicted the (24 month) cross-level effects of PSC on psychological strain via work conditions. We used a novel design whereby data from two unrelated samples of nurses working in remote areas were used across time (N=202, Time 1; N=163, Time 2), matched at the work unit level (N= 48). Using hierarchical linear modelling we found that unit PSC assessed by nurses predicted work conditions (workload, control, supervisor support) and psychological strain in different nurses in the same work unit 24 months later. There was evidence that the between-group relationship between unit PSC and psychological strain was mediated via Time 2 work conditions (workload, job control) as well as Time 1 emotional demands. The results support a multilevel work stress model with PSC as a plausible primary cause, or “cause of the causes”, of work-related strain. The study adds to the literature that identifies organizational contextual factors as origins of the work stress process.     

Musculoskeletal discomfort and work-related stress in New Zealand dentists

Abstract

There has been little research into the stressors, psychological distress and musculoskeletal symptoms experienced by dentists. The present study was carried out among a random sample of New Zealand dentists (N=413). The present study aimed to identify the severity of work psychosocial stressors, examine the occurrence of musculoskeletal discomfort and psychological disturbance, and determine relationships between these factors. The average age of the dentists was 43 years, with 74% being male. The annual prevalence of symptoms in both the lower back or neck was 63%, with 49% experiencing symptoms in the shoulders. Older dentists were no more likely to suffer musculoskeletal discomfort than younger dentists. The highest ranking dentistry-specific work-related stressor was ‘patients having a medical emergency’ with 78% scoring this stressor very highly. Dentists scored mental demands as the highest general work-related stressor. One-fifth of the dentists scored highly for psychological disturbance, which was very similar to the general population. Dentists with high scores for dentistry-specific work-related stressors were more likely to have evidence of psychological disturbance. The relationships between psychological disturbance and musculoskeletal discomfort needs to be taken into account when considering any multidisciplinary approach to prevention.     

The nature,extent and determinants of violence against psychiatric personnel

Violence against psychiatric staff seems to be on the increase. Such abuse can lead to mental health consequences for the staff and a reluctance to be closely involved with patients. Few Swedish investigations have examined violence against mental nurses and psychiatrists, or undertaken comparative studies between them. In this study we examined the extent, nature and determinants (i.e. risk factors) of violence against psychiatric nurses (n = 731) and psychiatrists (n = 320) working in the eight health care districts of Stockholm. These caregivers were assessed cross-sectionally by means of a questionnaire covering various areas (e.g. violence and work environment). The majority of the participants (85%) reported having been exposed to violence during their careers, with 57% being victimized in the past 12 months. Physical violence was common, and factors such as negative attitudes to work and diminished sense of autonomy were associated with an increased vulnerability to violence. Nurses and psychiatrists did not differ in violence variables. In spite of the weaknesses of the design (cross-sectional self-selecting sample), this study corroborates previous findings and identifies personal factors associated with violence that have received little attention in the literature (e.g. lack of respect for the organization of care).     

Discrepancies between chronological age and personal age as a reflection of unrelieved worker stress

Abstract

The general proposition that stress-related variables will be associated with discrepancies between chronological age and perceived personal age of working adults was examined. Responses from a field survey of day, afternoon, and night fixed-shift workers in a large manufacturing organization (n = 1674) were used to explore the relationships between a variety of reported stress-related variables and personal age constructs. Discrepancies between perceived personal age and chronological age were reported by a large proportion of the workers surveyed. Three categories of stress-related variables each accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in discrepancies. As hypothesized, the reported presence of stressors and the frequency/extent of strains (stress-related outcomes) were positively correlated with feeling older than one's chronological age. In addition, the reported presence of support mechanisms for coping with stressors was negatively correlated with feeling older than one's chronological age. The manner in which work and non-work stress may impinge upon personal age perceptions is discussed, and appropriate avenues for future research in this domain are considered.     

Relationships between stressful work environments and bullying: Results of a large representative study

Abstract

This paper contributes to the relatively sparse knowledge about relationships between stressful work environments and bullying. Relationships between job stressors and leadership behaviour were analysed as possible predictors of bullying at work on the basis of the work environment hypothesis, which states that stressful and poorly organized work environments may give rise to conditions resulting in bullying. Analyses of a representative sample (n=2539) of the Norwegian workforce showed role conflict, interpersonal conflicts, and tyrannical and laissez-faire leadership behaviour to be strongly related to bullying, and that the strength of associations to a high degree differed for various measures of bullying. Support was found for an interactive relationship between decision authority and role conflict at different levels of laissez-faire leadership. Not only targets and bully/targets but also bystanders assessed their work environment more negatively than did non-involved employees, while perpetrators of bullying did not differ significantly from non-involved employees as regards their perception of the work environment. Hence, bullying is likely to prevail in stressful working environments characterized by high levels of interpersonal friction and destructive leadership styles. In addition, bullying is particularly prevalent in situations where the immediate supervisor avoids intervening in and managing such stressful situations.     

Psychosocial work environment and psychosomatic health of nurses in Hungary

The main goal of this preliminary study was to detect the relative effects of sociodemographics, socio-economic factors and some variables of psychosocial work environment on an overall index of psychosomatic symptoms as an indicator of psychosomatic health in a sample of female Hungarian nurses. The participants were registered nurses and student nurses chosen at random from public hospitals ( n =420). Self-administered questionnaires contained various items on psychosomatic symptoms, sociodemographics, socio-economic variables, work schedule, the frequency of stressful situations and emotionally provoking problems at work, and social support from peers. Multiple regression models revealed that the frequency of stressful situations and emotionally provoking problems, and the lack of social support from peers, i.e. measures of psychosocial work environment, proved to be the only significant contributors to psychosomatic health complaints, after controlling for other variables in both registered and student nurses.     

Stress,health and the working environment of Swedish prison staff

Abstract

A random stratified sample of just over 2000 was drawn from staff working in 67 different prisons in Sweden. Questionnaires on working conditions and symptoms of ill health were administered and subjects were given health examinations. Morning plasma Cortisol and gamma glutamyltransferase (g GT) levels were measured and factual information on the prisons was collected for use in the analyses.

There were differences between prisons in terms of both objective and self-reported working conditions which appeared to affect health status, physiological state and sick leave rate. Cardiovascular and hypertensive conditions were found more often among prison staff than among a large reference group made up of many different occupations. Sick leave rates among prison staff, especially those over 45 years old, were very high compared with this reference group. The situation appeared particularly difficult in prisons with a high proportion of drug abusing inmates.

The data allowed the identification of several factors which might counteract the effects of stress at work: a proactive management style, goal consensus among staff, a high degree of decision latitude, satisfaction with work performance and a supportive psychosocial climate.