Exploring the nature of control and its role in the appraisal of workplace stress

The concept of control is a prominent component of theories of stress. From a transactional framework, appraisal of control is seen as important in influencing coping behaviour. However, little attention has been paid to the measurement of the appraisal of control in a work-related situation. In this paper it is argued that situational control should not be reduced to a simple assessment of whether or not an individual has control over a given situation. Instead it is believed that it is important to identify the factors that an individual strives to have control of, as well as the perceived degree of control over those factors. A major component of the present study was the use of a measure that viewed control in this way and that examined control as a multifaceted construct (task control, predictability, self-control and general control). This paper reports on an analysis that examines the multifaceted nature of perceived control with other situational appraisals in the process of coping with workplace stress. A total of 134 employees from four public sector organizations in New Zealand took part in this research. Having control over work tasks was for this sample considered to be less important in giving a sense of control than either predictability or self-control. When it came to reporting how much control they actually had, respondents reported higher levels of self-control than other aspects of control. However, in general respondents reported lower levels of actual control than what they perceived it was important for them to have. This research emphasizes the importance of having a sense of self-control, particularly when it comes to the use of different coping strategies. Overall these findings point to the need to better understand the nature and type of control and its importance if we are to advance our knowledge of work stress.     

Personality and coping as moderators of work stress processes: Models, methods and measures

This article reviews the role of individual differences in work stress processes, with particular reference to personality and coping as moderator variables. Vulnerability/resilience and person-environment fit (congruence) models of moderator effects are contrasted and relevant issues of methodology and analysis are outlined. Personality traits (locus of control, hardiness, Type A, optimism, and neuroticism) that act as moderators of stress/strain relations are reviewed; the characteristics and limitations of available measures are described. Associations between personality and coping, inventories for the assessment of coping, and the dimensions of coping behaviour, are then considered. The implications of structural and transactional models of stress for coping assessment are discussed with reference to dispositional versus situational approaches and other psychometric issues. The need for research into coping flexibility and consistency is emphasized. No attempt is made to provide a comprehensive account of empirical research into individual difference moderator effects, but relevant review articles are cited, together with some recent studies. Finally, several areas which would merit further attention (including specificity of moderator effects, conjunctive and disjunctive patterns, and moderation of relations between objective and perceived stressors) are identified.     

Personality and coping as moderators of work stress processes: Models,methods and measures

Abstract

This article reviews the role of individual differences in work stress processes, with particular reference to personality and coping as moderator variables. Vulnerability/resilience and person-environment fit (congruence) models of moderator effects are contrasted and relevant issues of methodology and analysis are outlined. Personality traits (locus of control, hardiness, Type A, optimism, and neuroticism) that act as moderators of stress/strain relations are reviewed; the characteristics and limitations of available measures are described. Associations between personality and coping, inventories for the assessment of coping, and the dimensions of coping behaviour, are then considered. The implications of structural and transactional models of stress for coping assessment are discussed with reference to dispositional versus situational approaches and other psychometric issues. The need for research into coping flexibility and consistency is emphasized. No attempt is made to provide a comprehensive account of empirical research into individual difference moderator effects, but relevant review articles are cited, together with some recent studies. Finally, several areas which would merit further attention (including specificity of moderator effects, conjunctive and disjunctive patterns, and moderation of relations between objective and perceived stressors) are identified.     

Power motivation, illness, coping strategies and psychological stress in police trainees

Research suggests that there are substantial differences in the ways in which people cope with strcss, and that certain coping strategies buffer the degree of psychological and physical illness resulting from stress. Furthermore, personality, the situational context and subjective appraisal of the situation are believed to mediate coping behaviour and its effectiveness. The present investigation reports the results of two studies of the relationship between coping behaviour and the personality disposition need for power, taking into account the environment and the subject's appraisal of the situation. Highly power-motivated individuals were hypothesized to utilize emotion-focused coping strategies more than problem-focused coping strategies, to find the training environment stressful and anxietyprovoking, and to report more illness, than low power-motivated individuals. A 19-wcck policc academy training programme was used to measure these relationships in 34 police trainees. Thc results did not support all hypotheses. Findings are discussed with reference to sample characteristics, training intensity, and the empirical work in this area.     

Power motivation,illness, coping strategies and psychological stress in police trainees

Abstract

Research suggests that there are substantial differences in the ways in which people cope with strcss, and that certain coping strategies buffer the degree of psychological and physical illness resulting from stress. Furthermore, personality, the situational context and subjective appraisal of the situation are believed to mediate coping behaviour and its effectiveness. The present investigation reports the results of two studies of the relationship between coping behaviour and the personality disposition need for power, taking into account the environment and the subject's appraisal of the situation. Highly power-motivated individuals were hypothesized to utilize emotion-focused coping strategies more than problem-focused coping strategies, to find the training environment stressful and anxietyprovoking, and to report more illness, than low power-motivated individuals. A 19-wcck policc academy training programme was used to measure these relationships in 34 police trainees. Thc results did not support all hypotheses. Findings are discussed with reference to sample characteristics, training intensity, and the empirical work in this area.     

Individual strategies for coping with stress at work: A review

This paper discusses some of the conceptual and methodological issues involved in the study of coping. It focuses on individual coping with work and work-related problems, and adopts a transactional framework for the definition of the key concepts of stress, appraisal and coping. It identifies and reviews 17 recent papers which are representative of the coping literature, as defined by the scope of the paper. What it draws out of this review largely concerns issues of measurement, and four particular issues are flagged as important for future research. It concludes that there is a need for more and more adequate studies, particularly in relation to the classification and modelling of coping, and that the adequacy of those future studies should be partly judged in terms of how well they deal with the issues raised here.     

Job stressors,coping, and psychological distress among Japanese employees: Interplay between active and non-active coping

In this study the sole and the combined effects of active and non-active forms of coping on psychological distress across various kinds of job stressors were examined. Data on job stressors, coping and psychological distress were obtained from 4487 male employees of a research institute in the automobile industry in Japan (mean age=36.27 years, SD = 7.43). A hierarchical moderated multiple regression analysis was conducted to estimate and test the significance of the main effects and their interactions. The results show that although active coping was effective in decreasing psychological distress regardless of the type of job stressor, the effectiveness was weaker in situations that require effortful coping, such as role ambiguity and insufficient authority. Furthermore, the effectiveness of active coping was influenced by the other strategies, especially in effortful coping situations. While distancing or seeking social support improved the effectiveness, restraint coping reduced it. These results suggest that the type of non-active coping that individuals combine with active coping can be critical in determining health outcomes in more complex and effortful coping situations. Consideration of the coping combinations, not merely the situational context, is important in explaining how the work environment influences employees' psychological distress.     

Job stressors, coping, and psychological distress among Japanese employees: interplay between active and non-active coping

In this study the sole and the combined effects of active and non-active forms of coping on psychological distress across various kinds of job stressors were examined. Data on job stressors, coping and psychological distress were obtained from 4487 male employees of a research institute in the automobile industry in Japan (mean age=36.27 years, SD = 7.43). A hierarchical moderated multiple regression analysis was conducted to estimate and test the significance of the main effects and their interactions. The results show that although active coping was effective in decreasing psychological distress regardless of the type of job stressor, the effectiveness was weaker in situations that require effortful coping, such as role ambiguity and insufficient authority. Furthermore, the effectiveness of active coping was influenced by the other strategies, especially in effortful coping situations. While distancing or seeking social support improved the effectiveness, restraint coping reduced it. These results suggest that the type of non-active coping that individuals combine with active coping can be critical in determining health outcomes in more complex and effortful coping situations. Consideration of the coping combinations, not merely the situational context, is important in explaining how the work environment influences employees' psychological distress.     

How Close Is Close Enough: Public Perceptions of the Risks of Industrial Facilities

Public opinion poll data have consistently shown that the proportion of respondents who are willing to have a nuclear power plant in their own community is smaller than the proportion who agree that more nuclear plants should be built in this country. Respondents' judgments of the minimum safe distance from each of eight hazardous facilities confirmed that this finding results from perceived risk gradients that differ by facility (e.g., nuclear vs. natural gas power plants) and social group (e.g., chemical engineers vs. environmentalists) but are relatively stable over time. Ratings of the facilities on thirteen perceived risk dimensions were used to determine whether any of the dimensions could explain the distance data. Because the rank order of the facilities with respect to acceptable distance was very similar to the rank order on a number of the perceived risk dimensions, it is difficult to determine which of the latter is the critical determinant of acceptable distance if, indeed, there is only one. There were, however, a number of reversals of rank order that indicate that the respondents had a differentiated view of technological risk. Finally, data from this and other studies were interpreted as suggesting that perceived lack of any other form of personal control over risk exposure may be an important factor in stimulating public opposition to the siting of hazardous facilities.     

Insights into Flood‐Coping Appraisals of Protection Motivation Theory: Empirical Evidence from Germany and France

Protection motivation theory (PMT) has become a popular theory to explain the risk‐reducing behavior of residents against natural hazards. PMT captures the two main cognitive processes that individuals undergo when faced with a threat, namely, threat appraisal and coping appraisal. The latter describes the evaluation of possible response measures that may reduce or avert the perceived threat. Although the coping appraisal component of PMT was found to be a better predictor of protective intentions and behavior, little is known about the factors that influence individuals’ coping appraisals of natural hazards. More insight into flood‐coping appraisals of PMT, therefore, are needed to better understand the decision‐making process of individuals and to develop effective risk communication strategies. This study presents the results of two surveys among more than 1,600 flood‐prone households in Germany and France. Five hypotheses were tested using multivariate statistics regarding factors related to flood‐coping appraisals, which were derived from the PMT framework, related literature, and the literature on social vulnerability. We found that socioeconomic characteristics alone are not sufficient to explain flood‐coping appraisals. Particularly, observational learning from the social environment, such as friends and neighbors, is positively related to flood‐coping appraisals. This suggests that social norms and networks play an important role in flood‐preparedness decisions. Providing risk and coping information can also have a positive effect. Given the strong positive influence of the social environment on flood‐coping appraisals, future research should investigate how risk communication can be enhanced by making use of the observed social norms and network effects.     

Coping with daily work problems. Contributions of problem content, appraisals, and person factors

This paper presents the result of an analysis of coping with daily work-related problems reported by a community sample of working adults. The methodology used differs from that employed elsewhere not only in its intensive longitudinal approach but also in its technique for measing coping Coping with work and non-work problems was compared. It is argued that the results provide strong support for the transactional model of stress, appraisal and coping, but also point up the importance of nonspecific (and unmeasured) person factors in predicting coping.     

Adoption of Individual Flood Damage Mitigation Measures in New York City: An Extension of Protection Motivation Theory

This study offers insights into factors of influence on the implementation of flood damage mitigation measures by more than 1,000 homeowners who live in flood‐prone areas in New York City. Our theoretical basis for explaining flood preparedness decisions is protection motivation theory, which we extend using a variety of other variables that can have an important influence on individual decision making under risk, such as risk attitudes, time preferences, social norms, trust, and local flood risk management policies. Our results in relation to our main hypothesis are as follows. Individuals who live in high flood risk zones take more flood‐proofing measures in their home than individuals in low‐risk zones, which suggests the former group has a high threat appraisal. With regard to coping appraisal variables, we find that a high response efficacy and a high self‐efficacy play an important role in taking flood damage mitigation measures, while perceived response cost does not. In addition, a variety of behavioral characteristics influence individual decisions to flood‐proof homes, such as risk attitudes, time preferences, and private values of being well prepared for flooding. Investments in elevating one's home are mainly influenced by building code regulations and are negatively related with expectations of receiving federal disaster relief. We discuss a variety of policy recommendations to improve individual flood preparedness decisions, including incentives for risk reduction through flood insurance, and communication campaigns focused on coping appraisals and informing people about flood risk they face over long time horizons.     

Stress,coping and problem solving

Abstract

This paper outlines the developing consensus on the nature of stress. It offers a definition of stress as a psychological state derived from the person's appraisal of their ability to cope with the demands which are made of them. The paper then examines the concept of coping and explores its role in stress theory. It contrasts two different approaches to the study of coping: the classification of coping strategies, and the investigation of the process of coping—coping as ‘problem solving’. The paper focuses on the latter and in doing so it describes the nature of rational models of problem solving, considering their utility and application to stress management.     

Coping with daily work problems. Contributions of problem content,appraisals, and person factors

Abstract

This paper presents the result of an analysis of coping with daily work-related problems reported by a community sample of working adults. The methodology used differs from that employed elsewhere not only in its intensive longitudinal approach but also in its technique for measing coping Coping with work and non-work problems was compared. It is argued that the results provide strong support for the transactional model of stress, appraisal and coping, but also point up the importance of nonspecific (and unmeasured) person factors in predicting coping.     

Public Perception of Uncertainties Within Climate Change Science

Climate change is a complex, multifaceted problem involving various interacting systems and actors. Therefore, the intensities, locations, and timeframes of the consequences of climate change are hard to predict and cause uncertainties. Relatively little is known about how the public perceives this scientific uncertainty and how this relates to their concern about climate change. In this article, an online survey among 306 Swiss people is reported that investigated whether people differentiate between different types of uncertainty in climate change research. Also examined was the way in which the perception of uncertainty is related to people's concern about climate change, their trust in science, their knowledge about climate change, and their political attitude. The results of a principal component analysis showed that respondents differentiated between perceived ambiguity in climate research, measurement uncertainty, and uncertainty about the future impact of climate change. Using structural equation modeling, it was found that only perceived ambiguity was directly related to concern about climate change, whereas measurement uncertainty and future uncertainty were not. Trust in climate science was strongly associated with each type of uncertainty perception and was indirectly associated with concern about climate change. Also, more knowledge about climate change was related to less strong perceptions of each type of climate science uncertainty. Hence, it is suggested that to increase public concern about climate change, it may be especially important to consider the perceived ambiguity about climate research. Efforts that foster trust in climate science also appear highly worthwhile.     

How People Perceive and Will Cope with Risks from the Diffusion of Ubiquitous Information and Communication Technologies

Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are increasingly pervasive and continue to reshape our environment. This trend carries different risks. Therefore, the early sensitization of people to these risks, as well as improving their capacity for protective coping behavior, is essential. Based on the protection motivation theory (PMT), we examined with structural equation modeling the relationships between different components of threat and coping appraisal to explain protective and nonprotective responses. Calculations were performed with data from a representative survey on perception and use of ICT among German residents (N= 5,030). Our findings largely supported the proposed model: an increased perceived threat was positively related to the intentions to react protectively and nonprotectively. Perceived coping efficacy increased the protective and decreased the nonprotective responses. Negative affect enhanced the perceived threat and the nonprotective response, but inhibited protective intentions. The implications of these findings on how to sensitize people to the risks of these new technologies are outlined.     

The occupational stress indicator locus of control scale: Should this be regarded as a state rather than trait measure?

Robertson et al (1990) concluded that the Occupational Stress Indicator's (OSI) locus of control scale did not have an acceptable level of validity. The present study compared two groups of health service employees, categorized on the basis of their obtained OSI locus of control scale scores as having 'high' versus 'low' control, on a number of other OSI scales. Subjects who regard themselves as having 'high' control reported significantly less work pressure, employed certain coping strategies more frequently, reported lower ill health scores and were more job satisfied. The findings are theoretically consistent with the argument that the OSI locus of control scale is a subjective measure of an individual's appraisal of their control at work (i.e. a state measure) rather than a trait construct as measured by Rotter's scale (as used in the OSI validity study by Robertson et al).     

The three functions of self-control behaviour: Redressive, reformative and experiential

Self-control refers to the process by which individualsconsciously decideto take charge of their own behaviour. This process in prompted by situations in which automatic and habitual responses are interrupted or are ineffective. There are three major functions of self-control behaviour. The first function is redressive and is directed at controlling responses (such as anxiety, pain, ets.) that interfere with the normalfunctioning of the person. This function is improtant for coping with stress. The second function is reformative; it facilitates the adoption of new behaviours that have a low probability of occurence. In this category are included behviours that require delay of gratification and resistance of temptations (such as dieting, quitting smoking, etc.).These two functions were mentioned earlier in theorizing of the self-control process.A third and a new function of self-control is introduced here: experiential self-control. This enables the person to fully experience pleasurable activities (such as listening to music and enjoying a party). This paper discusses phenomena such as relaxation, hypnosis, 'absorption', and 'openness to experience' as situations that call for experiential self-control. It emphasizes the importance of this function for the growth and development of the individual. Highly resourceful individuals possess a repertoire of behaviours that enables them to maintain stability in the face of stress and promote changeby opening themselves to new experiences.     

Gerechtigkeit und Arbeitskontext – Zur Bedeutung situativer Merkmale für die Gerechtigkeitswahrnehmung von Führungskr?ften

Leaders who are perceived to act with fairness can evoke desired employee behaviour in unique ways. Until now, little attention has been paid to the influence of situational factors on judging leader??s fairness in the work context. Based on the event paradigm, this study explores the formation of employee??s perception of leader??s justice in the context of work distribution through a variety of situational factors. Using a factorial survey we show that not only well-known factors such as respectful and reasonable behaviour affect the perception of leader??s fairness but also situational factors such as speech situation, trust between leader and follower, and the quality of the task.