The impact of negotiated exchange on trust and trustworthiness

Negotiated exchanges and trust problems can be regarded as two different forms of exchange, the former representing exchanges with negotiation and binding contracts, the latter representing asymmetric transactions in which one actor has the opportunity to deceive the other. Both forms of exchange have been extensively studied, but the two respective research traditions exhibit very little overlap. In this paper, we investigate the effects of negotiated exchanges in different network structures on the development of mutual trust. We derive hypotheses from various theories and test them by means of an experiment in which subjects first undertake a series of negotiated exchanges under different power conditions, and then face a trust problem with one of the actors that have been involved in the previous exchanges. The trust problem is operationalized by means of the Investment Game which allows us to look separately at trust and trustworthiness. Our results demonstrate that negotiated exchanges increase mutual trust, but not trustworthiness.     

Gender pairing bias in trustworthiness

We experimentally examine whether partner's gender information influences trust and trustworthiness behavior. We conduct an experiment where subjects make their choices, first with a completely unknown partner and then a partner of known gender (or vice versa). We find limited influence for gender information on trust behavior. Conversely, the results show a strong gender interaction with regard to trustworthiness both at the aggregate and individual levels. The proportion returned is significantly larger when the trustor and the trustee are of the same gender, bringing into light a gender pairing bias in trustworthiness.     

Deterministic versus probabilistic consequences of trust and trustworthiness: An experimental investigation

There is overwhelming evidence of reciprocal behavior, driven by intentions. However, the role of consequences is less clear cut. Experimentally manipulating how efficient trust and reciprocity can be in deterministic and uncertain environments allows us to study how payoff consequences of trust and trustworthiness affect reciprocity. According to the results for our modified Investment Game, trustees reward trust more when trust is more efficient but do not adjust rewards when the efficiency of rewarding is varied. Furthermore, higher deterministic benefits result in higher levels of reciprocity for all trust levels, whereas an uncertain environment diminishes reciprocity.     

Risk mitigation and trust: Experimental Evidence from Jordan and the United States

This paper examines how trust and trustworthiness respond to lowering the principal’s risk in cultural settings focused on risk mitigation vs. risk prevention. We employ a binary-choice trust game and show that principals are confronted with a complex optimization problem: risk mitigation lowers the principal’s cost of betrayal but if agents are inequality averse or reciprocally minded, it can also increase its likelihood. This may be exacerbated in cultures not used to fostering trust by risk mitigation. Our experiments suggest that lowering risk only increases trust in the United States but not in Jordan. In both countries, trustworthiness decreases as the principal’s vulnerability decreases. We extend our findings to naturally occurring vulnerabilities in addition to the financial ones created in the laboratory.     

Beyond Mars and Venus: Understanding gender differences in financial risk tolerance

Research indicates that men are more risk tolerant and make riskier financial decisions than women. To explain this, researchers have favored “essentialist” explanations that attribute differences to core biological mechanisms and have tended to neglect psychological mechanisms that reflect the influence of culture and socialization. To better understand gender differences in risk tolerance, we investigated the relative effects of multiple psychological dimensions of gender, including gender identification (i.e., identifying as one’s biological sex and viewing it as a positive part of the self), gender typicality (i.e., feeling like a typical member of one’s biological sex), and gender-stereotyped personality traits and social roles. We also measured 2D:4D digit ratios as an indicator of prenatal testosterone exposure. Stereotypically masculine or instrumental personality traits (e.g., strong, acts as a leader) were associated with more risk tolerance in both men and women but were relatively more important for understanding men’s risk tolerance. Stereotypically feminine or communal personality traits were associated with less risk tolerance in women. Women who identified more with other women, and men who identified less with other men showed greater risk tolerance. Digit ratio was not associated with risk tolerance. Further research focused on psychological gender and risk tolerance is emphasized.     

Carry a big stick,or no stick at all: Punishment and endowment heterogeneity in the trust game

We investigate the effect of costly punishment in a trust game with endowment heterogeneity. Our findings indicate that the difference between the investor and the allocator’s initial endowments determines the effect of punishment on trust and trustworthiness. Punishment fosters trust only when the investor is wealthier than the allocator. Otherwise, punishment fails to promote trusting behavior. As for trustworthiness, the effect is just the opposite. The higher the difference between the investor and the allocator’s initial endowments, the less willing allocators are to pay back. We discuss the consistency of our findings with social preference models (like inequality aversion, reciprocity), the capacity of punishment (i.e., the deterrence hypothesis) and hidden costs of punishment (i.e., models of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation). Our results are hardly coherent with the first two (inequality aversion and deterrence), but roughly consistent with the latter.     

Sex Differences in Self-awareness of Smiling During a Mock Job Interview

The present study examined sex differences in awareness of smiling behavior during a job interview, along with intended outcomes of false smiling. Male and female participants were assigned to the interviewee role of a mock job interview and were videotaped. Results indicate that women were more self-aware of false, but not genuine, smiling. In addition, women reported using false smiles to mask negative emotion and to appear enthusiastic more than did men. Naïve judges rated women who smiled in an attempt to mask negative emotion more harshly than men who smiled for this reason. Implications of these findings for the understanding of sex differences in smiling are discussed.     

Crisis communication research in Israel: A meta-analysis

This study presents a meta-analysis of crisis research in Israel. It highlights achievements and lacunas, as well as significant gaps in theory, methodology and practice. Moreover, the study reveals trends in applications to specific areas and topics. The paper statistically examines crisis research via crisis type, discipline, and research focus. The results finally showcase a viable need to apply crisis communication theory to research regarding crises in Israel.     

农村留守女童性安全与性教育问题

近年来,随着外出务工人员的日益增多,农村留守女童数量也急剧上升。由于缺乏必要的监护及性安全教育,不少留守女童成为性侵害的对象。农村留守女童性安全与性教育问题成为舆情分析的焦点。从留守女童性侵案件呈现出的三大特征,即性侵主体多元化、性侵手段多样化、性侵意识淡漠化,可以看出农村留守女童性安全问题情势不容乐观。究其原因,突出地表现在三个方面：亲子教育的缺失影响到性知识的传授、监护人缺乏性安全防范与教育的意识以及学校性安全教育的重视力度较为薄弱。因此,要整合学校、家庭和社会力量,对农村留守女童系统而科学地实施性安全教育,以期能够促进她们身心健康和谐发展。     

The Big Five personality traits and earnings: A meta-analysis

The past two decades have witnessed increased interest in the relationship between personality and labor market outcomes, as well as the emergence of the Five-Factor Model as the key reference framework for the study of personality. In this paper, we provide the first meta-analytical review of the empirical literature on the association between personal earnings and the Big Five personality traits. The analysis combines the results of 62 peer-reviewed articles published from 2001–2020, from which we retrieved 896 partial effect sizes. Overall, the primary literature provides robust support for a positive association between personal earnings and the traits of Openness, Conscientiousness, and Extraversion, while simultaneously revealing a negative and significant association between earnings and the traits of Agreeableness and Neuroticism. We find no evidence of a substantial publication bias. Meta-regression estimates suggest that Openness and Conscientiousness are positively associated with earnings even when primary researchers control for individual cognitive abilities and educational attainments. Similarly, the studies that include labor market control variables exhibit weaker associations between earnings and Extraversion and Agreeableness. The results of the primary studies seem unaffected by the time at which the Big Five are measured, as well as by the scale and number of inventory items. Meta-regression estimates suggest that the results of the primary literature are not stable across cultures and gender, and that the ranking and academic field of the journal matter.     

Unemployment and general cognitive ability: A review and meta-analysis

Evidence suggests an association between unemployment and general cognitive ability. Factors such as changes in environmental stimulation and the effects of stress may act as mediators in this relationship. We conduct a qualitative review and meta-analysis to determine whether an association between unemployment and general cognitive ability exists. Eighteen studies were included in the qualitative review, and six in the meta-analysis. Results of the review indicated a significant association between unemployment and lower cognitive ability. The meta–analysis supports this association, displaying a medium effect size which increased when age was included as a covariate. Both analyses point towards the existence of a relationship between unemployment and low cognition, moderated by age and promoted by the loss of stimulation obtained through employment, as well as by the stress experienced during unemployment. Based on these results, a series of suggestions are made to improve future studies in this emerging area.     

Before crisis: How near-miss affects organizational trust and industry transference in emerging industries

A near-miss, such as a narrowly avoided collision between vehicles, evades a full-scale accident but can generate media attention that threatens trust. In emerging industries, the effects of near-miss may extend beyond organizational boundaries and influence trust in the industry and technology. This study empirically tests these assertions by examining how media reports of near-miss affect organizational trustworthiness and how trust repair strategies after a near-miss influence organizational and industry trust and technology acceptance in the emerging commercial industry of unmanned aircraft. Notwithstanding parallels to paracrisis, near-miss communication is understudied in public relations research. Further, studies of trust in the context of crisis are recent (see Brühl et al., 2018; Fuoli et al., 2017), and have produced unexpected results that warrant continued exploration in public relations. Underpinned by attribution theory, this study adopts a 2 (near-miss cause: external, low controllability; internal, high controllability) x 3 (trust repair strategy delivered via news story: denial, excuse, apology) scenario-based experiment. This study found that near-miss reduced organizational trustworthiness regardless of whether the event was controllable or not, indicating that when it comes to trust perceptions, near-miss can operate similarly to crisis. Further, apology was the only strategy that arrested a fall in organizational trustworthiness. The study signaled a trust transfer effect where organizational trust influenced industry trust, which led to the acceptance of unmanned aircraft technology. In the context of emerging industries, these findings have implications for organizations that experience near-miss, highlighting the potential for a standardized initial strategy to acknowledge a reduction in trust in order to support trust beyond the organization.     

Listening Styles: Sex Differences in Perceptions of Self and others

Historically, more time has been spent on teaching speaking than listening, even though listening is the communication activity in which we spend most of our time. Difficulties in teaching include the lack of a single definition or model of listening. Additionally, since listening is both cognitive and behavioral, effectiveness is often evaluated by what students know as opposed to what students do. This article provides a comprehensive look at what is known about teaching listening in both the college and corporate classrooms. Finally, it proposes the educational concept of Teacher Research to develop further theories on how to teach listening more effectively.     

Solidarity as a byproduct of professional collaboration: Social support and trust in a coworking space

This article investigates solidarity arising from economic exchange, by studying a multiplex network of collaboration, trust and social support. After a qualitative pre-study, we performed a full-network survey on a group of independent professionals sharing a coworking space and occasionally collaborating with each other. By running multivariate Exponential Random Graph Models, we showed that successful collaboration might not determine expectations of social support. However, these relationships were related to business-based trust ties, which were predicted by collaboration. Our results suggest that solidarity can emerge as a byproduct of peer economic exchange when trust mediates between professional relationships and expressive ties.     

Supportive organizational environment,work-life enrichment,trust and turnover intention: A national survey of PRSA membership

Based on an online survey of a national random sample of the PRSA membership (n?=?650), this study is among the first to explore public relations employees’ own turnover intention and propose three contributing factors for employers to keep top talent in PR industry: a family-supportive organizational environment; the positive, enriching impact of professional work upon practitioners’ life; and PR practitioners’ trust toward employers. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

The Importance of Sex in the Lives of Women Living with HIV: A Critical Quantitative Analysis

The authors explored the importance of sex for 1,289 women living with HIV in Canada. Approximately half of women viewed sex as “very” (19.6%) or “somewhat” important (32.3%) and the remaining reported “neither important or unimportant” (22.0%), “somewhat unimportant” (5.4%), or “not at all important” (20.1%). Women who had a regular sex partner, identified as African, Caribbean, or Black, were more educated, believed HIV treatment prevents transmission, or had better physical health-related quality-of-life reported greater importance of sex, whereas those who were older, used illicit drugs, or experienced violence in adulthood reported lesser importance. Findings underscore the diversity of women's perspectives within the context of their lives.     

Power,justice, and trust: A moderated mediation analysis of tax compliance among Ethiopian business owners

We explored the moderating roles of legitimate and coercive power held by the tax authority in the relationship between procedural justice, trust in the tax authority, and voluntary tax compliance. Drawing from fairness heuristic theory and the slippery slope framework of tax compliance, we predicted that procedural justice fosters voluntary tax compliance, particularly when legitimate power of the tax authority is low and when coercive power of the authority is high. Moreover, we predicted that these interactive effects are mediated by (cognition-based) trust. Finally, we predicted that coercive power of the tax authority is positively related with enforced tax compliance. The results of a field study among Ethiopian business owners supported most predictions. This research is among the first to integrate social–psychological and deterrence-related factors to understand tax compliance behavior in a developing country.     

Believe it when you see it: Dyadic embeddedness and reputation effects on trust in cryptomarkets for illegal drugs

Large-scale online marketplace data have been repeatedly used to test sociological theories on trust between strangers. Most studies focus on sellers’ aggregate reputation scores, rather than on buyers’ individual decisions to trust. Theoretical predictions on how repeated exchanges affect trust within dyads and how buyers weigh individual experience against reputation feedback from other actors have not been tested directly in detail. What do buyers do when they are warned not to trust someone they have trusted many times before? We analyze reputation effects on trust at the dyadic and network levels using data from an illegal online drug marketplace. We find that buyers’ trust decisions are primarily explained by dyadic embeddedness - cooperative sellers get awarded by repeated exchanges. Although buyers take third-party information into account, this effect is weaker and more important for first-time buyers. Buyers tend to choose market exit instead of retaliation against sellers after negative experiences.     

Underlying processes of SCCT: Mediating roles of preventability,blame, and trust

Despite the prevalence of the situational crisis communication theory (SCCT; Coombs, 2007) in crisis communication research, few SCCT-based studies have examined how different crisis types affect post-crisis reputation. This study, therefore, attempts to uncover the underlying processes of SCCT. Specifically, this study examined preventability, blame, and trust as potential mediators of crisis type and organizational post-crisis reputation. A between-subjects experimental study (crisis type: victim vs. accidental vs. preventable) was conducted with 329 college students. The results revealed that crisis type had no direct effects on reputation, but it did affect preventability, blame, and trust. More significantly, the results showed that crisis type indirectly affected reputation in two distinct ways: (1) via a sequence of preventability and blame and (2) via trust. The study includes a discussion of theoretical and practical implications.     

The influence of customer use of corporate websites: Corporate social responsibility,trust, and word-of-mouth communication

This study investigates the potential of organization websites from the customer's perspective. The findings include significant direct effects of customers’ use of corporate websites on their perceptions of a company's corporate social responsibility and their trust in the company, and indirect effects of their use of corporate websites on positive word-of-mouth through trust. The results also indicate a close link between perception of corporate social responsibility and trust.