Being involved in the country: Productive ageing in different types of rural communities

Productive ageing recognises the contribution of older people to economic, social and cultural growth and helps build a sustainable community. Being involved in community life is good for individuals and good for society. However, we know very little about the participation of and contribution by people aged 50 and over in rural communities. This research aimed to develop a better understanding of productive ageing in different types of communities in rural Victoria, Australia. An anonymous self-complete postal questionnaire was distributed to a sample of households in twenty rural communities using the Australia Post Unaddressed Select Service. Those householders 50 years of age and older were invited to complete the survey. Data collected allowed examination of social and civic engagement, familiarity with community, the value placed on social relations by people aged 50 years and over, and how community involvement was linked to community sustainability. In particular it attempts to address the question ‘Does social and civic engagement differ across declining, stable and growing rural communities?’ Despite differences among rural communities, this study showed that older people develop and maintain strong community connections and well-functioning social capital and that participation in social activities was associated with feelings of being connected with community. It also identified health issues and lack of options as the main constraints on participation. A key message for policy makers is that older people play an important role in the sustainability of rural communities. There is much to be gained from actively supporting their participation in activities that are connected to ageing well.     

Rural communities and well‐being: a good place to grow up?

This study looks at young people's accounts of life in communities in rural northern Scotland, and considers in what ways affective and social aspects of community are bound up with well‐being, over and above young people's concerns for the future, rural youth transitions, and out‐migration. Interviews were held with 15–18 year‐olds in four study areas (16 groups, N=60+) and a parallel survey of 11–16 year‐olds was conducted in eight study areas (N=2400+). Themes to emerge from the interviews included: opportunities locally, the future and staying on, as well as local amenities and services; but older teenagers also spoke at length about their social lives, family and social networks, and their community, both as close‐knit and caring and as intrusive and controlling. Rural communities were seen as good places in childhood, but not necessarily for young people. In parallel with that, the survey data paints a picture where feelings of support, control, autonomy, and attachment were all associated with emotional well‐being. Importantly, links between emotional well‐being and practical, material concerns were outweighed by positive identifications of community as close‐knit and caring; and equally, by negative identifications as intrusive and constraining, where the latter was felt more strongly by young women. Certainly, beliefs about future employment and educational opportunities were also linked to well‐being, but that was over and above, and independently of, affective and social aspects of community life. Additionally, migration intentions were also bound up with sense of self and well‐being, and with feelings about community life; and links between thoughts about leaving and community life as controlling and constraining were, yet again, felt more strongly by young women. Thus, gender was a key dimension affecting young people's feelings about their communities with significant implications for well‐being, and out‐migration. The study illustrates the importance of understanding the experiences young people have of growing up in rural areas, and how they evaluate those experiences: particularly, how life in rural communities matters for young people's well‐being; and especially, for young women.     

Self-rated quality of life among the young unemployed and the young in work in northern Sweden

This study analysed self-assessed quality of life (QoL), using a QoL questionnaire (H?rnquist's QLcs) covering life spheres, somatic health, mental well-being, cognitive ability, social and family life, activity, financial situation, meaning in life and a global score "entire life", for young people aged 18-24 in a population-based cross-sectional study in northern Sweden. Of these, 651 were unemployed and 2802 were in work (employed, students and in military service). Results showed that the young unemployed exhibited poorer QoL than the young in work and the greatest difference was found regarding their financial situation. Young men rated somatic health and mental well-being higher than young women. However, QoL in other essential domains was rated higher by young women in work. Close friends and money reserve were important for all participants, no matter whether they were employed or not. The risk of being young and unemployed was greater if the person had a worse financial situation, shorter education, and fewer leisure activities with other people. Finally, it was concluded that while QoL is poorer when in unemployment - both for the young and those who are older (aged 25-64) - psychological well-being, in contrast to several previous studies, is even poorer for young people than for those who are older. This is worrying in a public health perspective and could have implications for unemployment policies for younger and less well-educated age groups.     

Quality of life among unemployed and employed people in northern Sweden. Are there any differences?

This study analysed self-assessed quality of life (QoL), using a QoL questionnaire (H?rnquist's QLcs) covering the life spheres, somatic health, mental well-being, cognitive ability, social and family life, activity, financial situation, meaning in life and a global score "entire life", in 487 unemployed subjects and 2917 employed subjects aged 25-64, in a population-based cross-sectional study in northern Sweden. In line with previous findings, results showed that unemployed people exhibited poorer QoL. Unemployed women scored higher in existential life domains than unemployed men did. Unemployed men were worst off in terms of general life situation. Employed respondents benefited in QoL by a university/college education, while unemployed respondents with a university/college education did not. Close social relations and money reserve were associated with higher QoL generally. It was concluded that further research is needed to differentiate various aspects of QoL and unemployment, and to compare with other samples.     

Social Capital and Participation in Community Improvement Activities by Elderly Residents in Small Towns and Rural Communities*

Abstract This study critically reviews theoretical concepts and measurements of social capital and tests hypotheses that elaborate how four dimensions of social capital (informal social ties, formal social ties, trust, and norms of collective action) and sense of community are related to participation in community improvement activities for elderly residents in small towns and rural communities. Mail surveys of 2,802 elders in 99 small towns and rural communities in Iowa reveal that many elders are actively involved in their community. Social capital and sense of community are very important in predicting elderly participation in community improvement activities, but they relate differently to elderly community involvement. Formal ties and sense of community have much stronger relationships with community involvement than informal ties and norms of collective action. Generalized trust is not significantly related to elderly community involvement.     

Quality of life of older people in Israel: a comparison between older people living at home who are members of a ‘supportive community’ and nursing home residents

The supportive community is a program that was developed in Israel for older people who live at home. The program provides its members with a service package that includes medical and social services, emergency call-button, cultural activities, and a ‘community parent’ who is responsible for the members. Using quantitative method, this study compared the level of quality of life between 55 older people living in their homes who are members of a supportive community (average age = 74.7) and 60 elderly people living in nursing homes (average age = 75.8). As expected, results indicate that quality of life among the older people living at their homes who are members of a supportive community was higher than among the older people living in a nursing home. In addition, the quality of life of married, educated, functionally independent older people in good health and with a good economic situation was higher. Predictor variables of quality of life were: the place of residence, health status, and age. In light of increased life expectancy and the growing need to care for the older population, the practical application of the study focused on a recommendation for the social services to continue the support community development program.     

Social capital and older people in farming communities

This study draws on data from interviews with older people aged 65 to 85 (n = 65) to assess the extent to which the concept of social capital can be used to inform our understanding of social networks in farming families. Findings indicate that key indicators of social capital such as trust, reciprocity and co-operation strongly influence and determine social relations. Interestingly, though contrary to much of the literature on social capital, a strong community spirit can exist where associational activities are extremely limited. Older people in this community have few opportunities for social interaction, yet this did not affect their perception of being part of a close knit community. Significantly this work challenges the assumption that older people are simply recipients of social capital and demonstrates that they are also important producers of social capital. The article contends that the relevance of this concept to older people in these rural communities has not been fully explored and is poorly understood.     

Quality of Life of the Elderly Receiving Old Age Pension in Lesotho

The southern African country of Lesotho introduced an old age pension scheme in 2004 with the aim of enhancing the quality of life (QoL) of the nation’s elderly population. This study is the first to assess the physical, psychological, social, and environmental aspects of the health-related QoL of the elderly in Lesotho since the pension scheme was adopted. Data for this study were gathered using the World Health Organization QoL-BREF questionnaire. Mean QoL scores were compared across demographic, socioeconomic, and clinical variables using analysis of variance, t test, and regression analysis. Findings indicate that respondents were least satisfied with the environmental and physical domains of QoL. They also indicate that the overall QoL of the elderly in Lesotho was mainly affected by marital status, level of education, type of housing, source of income, and level of satisfaction with income. These factors should thus be taken into account when developing interventions aimed at improving the QoL of the elderly in Lesotho.     

The elderly in rural environments

This paper provides a critical examination of the research available on the rural elderly in America. A detailed review of the many studies and topical areas investigated by rural gerontologists is not attempted. Rather, several ‘salient aspects’ of rurality (occupational, ecological and sociocultural) are identified as a basis for describing and explaining the status and experiences of older people in rural areas. The meaning of these dimensions as they relate to rural environments and the elderly is explored through both a general discussion and an application to two substantive issues — health status and life satisfaction. This examination illustrates the sizeable gaps that exist in what we currently know about the rural elderly and the problems/drawbacks of approaches traditionally used to study this topic. The paper concludes with a call for a more unified and conceptually based approach to future rural elderly research, that focuses on how and why the ‘salient aspects’ of rurality produce different circumstances and experiences for the elderly, and that emphasizes rural variation, not just ‘rural vs urban’ comparisons.     

Providing sex education to adolescents in rural Bangladesh: experiences from BRAC

In 1995, the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee set up an Adolescent Reproductive Health Education (ARHE) program to provide information about reproductive health to adolescents in rural areas. This article explores the impact of the ARHE on adolescent girls and boys, their parents, and community members among rural areas in Bangladesh. Drawing on data from the field research conducted among the target audience, it is noted that ARHE has mobilized the community. It helped break the silence and shame about sensitive topics, such as menstruation, family planning methods, sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS. Subsequently, these developments have affected relationships between adolescents and their parents, and among adolescents themselves. Moreover, the diffusion of knowledge as a result of the ARHE is occurring in the context of a wider process affecting rural areas of Bangladesh, involving the media, books, exposure to urban and nontraditional ways of life, and schooling. The need for additional research, with a greater focus on adolescents who participate in the program and go on to marry, is highlighted.     

Older people's experiences of community life: patterns of neighbouring in three urban areas

This paper examines changes to the community life of older people living in three urban areas of England: Bethnal Green, Wolverhampton and Woodford. All three were the subject of classic community studies in the 1940s and 1950s, these providing rich material about the lives of groups such as elderly people. Using this earlier research as a baseline, the paper presents data on how the experience of living in urban neighbourhoods has changed for older people in the intervening years. The article reviews the relationship between elderly people and their neighbours, drawing on quantitative as well as qualitative data. In conclusion, the paper identifies a number of general arguments pointing to the value of a community and locality perspective for understanding the impact of social changes on later life.     

Supporting a strong sense of purpose: lessons from a rural community

Many rural youth leave their small home towns, at least temporarily, to pursue education and work opportunities after high school. A strong sense of purpose will likely help these young people navigate their transition to adulthood away from the comforts of home. A case study of high school students in a remote rural county in the Pacific Northwest using survey and ethnographic data showed that traditional out-of-school activities (for example, sports, theater, band, Future Farmers of America) and community-based activities (for example, community symphony, community classes, community events), along with work experiences, were all important for developing a strong sense of purpose. The case study points to the important role small rural schools can play in supporting youth and connecting them to activities that foster a strong sense of purpose. In addition, this article discusses the importance of paying attention to the development of a sense of purpose alongside traditional measures of academic achievement and social competence.     

Imagining the Good Place: Public Services and Family Strategies in Rural Ecuador

Recent scholarship seeks to lift up alternatives to neoliberalism that build community well‐being and a sense of place. This study follows three families in a rural highland Ecuadorean community and their investments in human capital, family businesses, and migration. It applies a human ecological model to show how complex ideologies around community well‐being, such as buen vivir (living well), are articulated at the macroscale and experienced at the meso‐ and microscales through investments in public services and their impact on rural families. Our collaborative ethnography elevates families’ voices to show how they both experience and envision community well‐being. We incorporate human capabilities and a community capitals framework to show how investments and ideologies flow across scales. We highlight the role of local social capital and regional territorial dynamics that support both economic growth and social inclusion. Our collaborative ethnography illustrates how rural residents imagine the good place (buen lugar), a resilient foundation from which they can build their family strategies. However, we find that lack of political and financial investment truncates active citizenship at the local scale, limiting the ability to achieve the full promise of buen vivir.     

The Association Between the New Rural Cooperative Medical System and Health Care Seeking Behavior Among Middle-Aged and Older Chinese

The new rural cooperative medical system (NCMS) is the primary form of social insurance in rural China. This study aims to explore how the NCMS influences the health care seeking behaviors of middle-aged and older Chinese, considering the family and community contexts. A series of multi-level (three-level) models using data from the first wave of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) are used. We find that the presence of NCMS coverage has a statistically significant association with seeking inpatient and outpatient care but not physical checkups among middle-aged and older rural Chinese: Rural residents insured by NCMS were more likely to seek inpatient and outpatient care than people who were not insured. Other factors at the individual level (such as self-perceived health and number of doctor-diagnosed chronic diseases), the family level (such as living arrangements and household expenditures), and the community level (such as the presence of township hospitals within the community) are also significant predictors of health care seeking behaviors.     

Assessment of multidimensional poverty and effectiveness of microfinance-driven government and NGO projects in the rural Bangladesh

This paper has developed a multidimensional model usable in assessing economic, social, political and cultural dimensions of poverty by utilizing primary data collected from 78 villages in Bangladesh using a participatory approach. Employing the developed model, a comparative analysis has been performed between microfinance-driven government (GO) and NGO (non-government organization) projects to explore their relative effectiveness in enhancing wellbeing of the poor in rural Bangladesh. It is observed that GO agencies are more effective in enhancing ‘economic wellbeing’ of the poor, whereas NGOs are contributing more in the ‘social’ aspects of wellbeing. Findings also revealed that, as whole, GO agencies perform 42% better than NGOs in improving living standards of the rural poor which contradicts with the existing literature of poverty reduction projects in developing countries.     

Religiousness/Spirituality and Subjective Well-Being Among Rural Elderly Whites,African Americans,and Native Americans

SUMMARY

Little attention has been paid to subjective well-being among non-White elderly in rural areas where medical resources and financial support are deficient. The present study assessed a rural community sample of 215 elderly comprising 85 Caucasians, 75 African Americans, and 55 Native Americans, to examine roles of spirituality/religiousness on their subjective well-being. This study found ethnic differences in the reliance on religiosity/spirituality and a significant association between dimensions of religiousness/spirituality and subjective well-being among all ethnic rural elderly groups. The results of the study suggest that health providers, social workers, and faith communities need to provide rural elderly with religious and spiritual support in order to enhance their life satisfaction and lessen their emotional distress.     

The social and nutritional meaning of food sharing among older rural adults

In most societies, the gift of food conveys social meaning, as well as nutritional sustenance. While food sharing has been widely noted, there has been little focused study of this practice among older adults in the US, who, as a group, are considered nutritionally vulnerable. We completed in-depth interviews with 145 adults (African American, European American, and Native American) aged 70+ years in rural North Carolina. Our objectives are (1) to describe the types of food shared by gender and ethnicity, (2) to identify values and meaning elders associate with giving and receiving food, and (3) to discuss the nutritional and social contribution food sharing makes to the lives of these rural elders. All elders participated in food sharing, as givers, recipients, or both. It is valued by these elders as a way to maintain reciprocity in social relations and to create a feeling of community membership. For older adults, receiving food gifts may augment a diet limited by income and functional status.     

Social capital,information flows,and income creation in rural Canada: a cross-community analysis

We propose that (I) social capacity, defined as the ability of people to organize and use their social capital, does influence their level of income, and that (II) this is because social capital use facilitates the flow of income-related knowledge and information between economic agents. Tests of these propositions based on a framework classifying social capital as a productive asset embedded in four types of social relations, and using data on household and community social capital for rural Canada, revealed some supportive evidence.     

Being part of an enacted togetherness: Narratives of elderly people with depression

In this article, we explored how five elderly persons with depression engaged in everyday activities with others, over time, and how this was related to their experience of meaning. Repeated interviews and participant observations generated data that was analysed using a narrative approach. Analysis identified togetherness as an acted relation, "enacted togetherness", emphasising how the act of doing everyday activities with someone created togetherness and belonging, and being part of an enacted togetherness seemed to be a way for the participants to negotiate and construct meaning. Opportunities for doing things together with someone were closely associated to the place where the participants lived. Furthermore, engagement in activities together with others created hope and expectations of future acting. Findings from this research can extend our understanding of how participating in everyday activities is experienced as a social process including change over time, presenting the perspective of elderly people themselves. In light of these findings, we highlight the need to consider how opportunities to become part of an enacted togetherness can be created. Also, we aspire to contribute to the debate on how to understand the complexity related to social aspects of ageing and add to the emerging understanding of everyday activities as transactional, incorporating people and the environment in a dynamic process that goes beyond the individual.