Reliability and Validity of the Pathological Gambling Adaptation of the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (PG-YBOCS)

The Yale Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale adapted for Pathological Gambling (PG-YBOCS) was developed to measure the severity and change in severity of pathological gambling symptoms. The PG-YBOCS is a 10-item clinician-administered questionnaire that measures the severity of PG over a recent time interval (usually within the past one/two week(s)). In order to assess and validate the scale, it was administered to 337 subjects: 188 pathological gamblers and 149 healthy controls. Internal consistency and correlations between individual items and total score were assessed for various permutations of the sample. Other scales were administered to assess convergent, discriminant and content validity. Sensitivity to change was evaluated in treatment studies with fluovoxamine, lithium, and valproate. Each item was frequently endorsed across a range of severity. Good inter-rater reliability and internal consistency were obtained. The PG-YBOCS showed high validity and reliability for total score, item-total correlations, and for each subscale (Thoughts/Urges and Behavior). PG-YBOCS scores correlated with global severity and South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) scores. The scale was also sensitive to change in pathological gambling severity. PG-YBOCS thus appears to be a reliable and valid measure of pathological gambling severity, and can be regarded as an important tool for clinicians and researchers treating pathological gamblers.     

Reliability, Validity, and Classification Accuracy of a Spanish Translation of a Measure of DSM-IV Diagnostic Criteria for Pathological Gambling

The aim of this study was to measure the reliability, validity, and classification accuracy of a Spanish translation of a measure of DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for Pathological Gambling (PG). Participants were 263 male and 23 female patients seeking treatment for PG and a matched non-psychiatric control sample of 259 men and 24 women. A Spanish translation of a 19-item measure of DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for PG (Stinchfield 2003) was administered along with other validity measures. The DSM-IV diagnostic criteria were found to be internally consistent with a coefficient alpha of .95 in the combined sample. Evidence of satisfactory convergent validity included moderate to high correlations with other measures of problem gambling. Using the standard DSM-IV cut-score of five, the ten criteria were found to yield satisfactory classification accuracy results with a high hit rate (.95), high sensitivity (.92), high specificity (.99), low false positive (.01), and low false negative rate (.08). Lowering the cut score to four resulted in modest improvements in classification accuracy and reduced the false negative rate from .08 to .05. The Spanish translation of a measure of DSM-IV diagnostic criteria for PG demonstrated satisfactory psychometric properties and a cut score of four improved diagnostic precision.     

Examining DSM-IV Criteria for Pathological Gambling: Psychometric Properties and Evidence from Cognitive Biases

We examined the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling as assessed with the DSM-IV-based Diagnostic Interview for Gambling Severity (DIGS; Winters, Specker, & Stinchfield, 2002). We first analyzed the psychometric properties of the DIGS, and then assessed the extent to which performance on two judgment and decision-making tasks, the Georgia Gambling Task (Goodie, 2003) and the Iowa Gambling Task (Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Anderson, 1994), related to higher reports of gambling pathology. In a sample of frequent gamblers, we found strong psychometric support for the DSM-IV conception of pathological gambling as measured by the DIGS, predictive relationships between DIGS scores and all cognitive performance measures, and significant differences in performance measures between individuals with and without pathological gambling. Analyses using suggested revisions to the pathological gambling threshold (Stinchfield, 2003) revealed that individuals meeting four of the DSM-IV criteria aligned significantly more with pathological gamblers than with non-pathological gamblers, supporting the suggested change in the cutoff score from five to four symptoms. Discussion focuses on the validity of the DSM-IV criteria as assessed by the DIGS and the role of cognitive biases in pathological gambling.     

The Victorian Gambling Screen: Reliability and Validation in a Clinical Population

There is a need to establish reliability and the various forms of validity in all measures in order to feel confident in the use of such tools across a wide diversity of settings. The aim of this study is to describe the reliability and validity of the Victorian Gambling Screen (VGS) and in particular one of the sub-scales (Harm to Self—HS) in a specialist problem gambling treatment service in Adelaide, Australia. Sixty-seven consecutive gamblers were assessed using a previously validated clinical interview and the VGS (Ben-Tovim et al., The Victorian Gambling Screen: project report. Victorian Research Panel, Melbourne, 2001). The internal consistency of the combined VGS scales had a Cronbach’s alpha of .85 with the HS scale .89. There was satisfactory evidence of convergent validity which included moderate correlations with another measure of gambling—the South Oaks Gambling Screen. There were also moderate correlations with other measures of psychopathology. Finally, how the VGS may best be used in clinical settings is discussed.     

Psychometric Validation of the Gambling Passion Scale (GPS) in an English-speaking University Sample

The Gambling Passion Scale (GPS) is a recently developed research instrument for assessing individuals' passion for gambling. Because the psychometric properties of the GPS have only previously been examined in French Canadians, the aim of this study was to replicate previous psychometric findings in an English-speaking university sample. Participants (female: n = 58; male: n = 89) were drawn from a university campus based on self-reported experience with gambling indexed by scores on the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS). The two-factor structure reported by Rousseau et al. (Journal of Gambling Studies, 18(1), pp. 45–66, 2002) was largely replicated in this sample, as were relationships between ‘obsessive passion’ and negative consequences stemming from gambling. These results support the validity of the GPS as a measure of gambling passion in English-speaking university gamblers and its potential to contribute to understanding problem gambling.     

Gambling Screens: Does Shortening the Time Frame Affect their Psychometric Properties?

Gambling screening tools such as the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) and a DSM-IV Screen for Gambling Problems (NODS) developed by the National Opinion Research Council have psychometrically validated lifetime and past-year versions. As research questions often dictate shorter time intervals, researchers have adapted the time frames of these instruments to their specific purposes without examining whether changing the time frame affects the psychometric properties. In this study, 3-month versions of SOGS and NODS were administered to a sample of 80 pathological gamblers (59 men, 21 women, mean age 44) seeking treatment at a state-funded facility. The 3-months versions had good internal consistency, good convergent validity with each other, with gambling behaviors assessed via the timeline followback method, and with measures of impulsivity. The 3-month versions also showed good discriminant validity with demographic variables and a measure of verbal IQ. Together the data indicate that shortening the time frame to 3 months does not seem to have adverse effects on the psychometric properties of SOGS and NODS. Thus these adapted versions could profitably be used for shorter time intervals, including as pre/post-treatment and follow-up measures in treatment outcome studies.     

Divergent Validity of Measures of Cognitive Distortions, Impulsivity, and Time Perspective in Pathological Gambling

The present study assessed the divergent validity of several self-report and objective behavioral measures for assessing pathological gambling using three samples divided by South Oaks Gambling Scale score [Lesieur, & Blume (1987). American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1184–1188]: pathological gamblers, potential pathological gamblers, and non-pathological gamblers. Self-report measures included the Gamblers’ Beliefs Questionnaire [GBQ; Steenbergh, Meyers, May, & Whelan (2002). Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 16, 143–149], the Gambling Passion Scale [GPS; Rousseau, Vallerand, Ratelle, Mageau, & Provencher, (2002). Journal of Gambling Studies, 18, 45–66], the Eysenck Impulsivity Questionnaire [EIQ; Eysenck, & Eysenck (1978). Psychological Reports, 43, 1247–1255], and the Stanford Time Perspective Inventory [STPI; Zimbardo, & Boyd (1999). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1271–1288]. Behavioral tasks included the delay discounting task [Madden, Petry, Badger, & Bickel (1997). Experimental & Clinical Psychopharmacology, 5, 256–263] and the Future Time Perspectives [FTP; Wallace (1956). Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 52, 240–245]. The GBQ, GPS, Impulsivity subscale of the EIQ, and DDT all exhibited robust divergent validity, however, neither measure of time perspective discriminated between groups. Applications of these findings to etiological research and clinical contexts are discussed.This work was originally presented in November, 2003 at the 37th annual convention of the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy in Boston, MA.     

Adaptation and validation of the Gambling Motives Questionnaire-Financial (GMQ-F) in a sample of French-speaking gamblers

Previous research has identified specific gambling motives and linked them with both healthy and disordered gambling. The Gambling Motives Questionnaire (GMQ) is currently the most widely used measure for these motives. The present study aimed to offer a French validation of the latest version of this scale, the GMQ-Financial (GMQ-F), which measures four distinct motives (enhancement, social, coping, financial). The French GMQ-F was completed by 278 gamblers from the community and 22 treatment-seeking pathological gamblers, along with scales assessing gambling cognitions, impulsivity, disordered gambling symptoms and psychopathological symptoms. Confirmatory factor analysis supported the expected four-factor model. The GMQ-F subscales have good internal reliability. Validity of the GMQ-F is supported by specific correlations with the other constructs measured. Pathological gamblers differed from gamblers from the community on all but one (social) of the GMQ-F subscales. The French GMQ-F presents good psychometric properties and constitutes a reliable instrument for measuring gambling motives in research and clinical practice.     

Development and validation of the Protective Gambling Beliefs Scale (PGBS)

This article aimed to develop and validate a measure of protective beliefs – distinct from the absence of erroneous beliefs – that may be associated with resistance to gambling problems. Study 1 was designed to determine the reliability and content validity of a preliminary set of protective belief items. Participants (N = 1479, 813 males) also completed the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). Most items were associated with reduced risk of problems; however, items relating to an awareness of gambling harm, and preparedness to lose money were positively correlated with gambling problems and were therefore not demonstrably protective. Study 2 sought to reduce scale size and assess the scale’s ability to predict risk of gambling problems. Participants (N = 1168, 625 males) completed belief items, the PGSI, and measures of gambling consumption and cognitive distortions. Results showed that endorsement of protective beliefs was negatively correlated with PGSI, gambling consumption and cognitive distortions, and predicted PGSI above that of cognitive distortions. Findings suggest that the Protective Gambling Beliefs Scale (PGBS) offers a unique tool for understanding resistance to the development of gambling problems. Future research should focus on exploring whether protective beliefs can diminish the likelihood of the onset of problem gambling.     

The Development of a Multi-dimensional Gambling Accessibility Scale

The aim of the current study was to develop a scale of gambling accessibility that would have theoretical significance to exposure theory and also serve to highlight the accessibility risk factors for problem gambling. Scale items were generated from the Productivity Commission’s (Australia’s Gambling Industries: Report No. 10. AusInfo, Canberra, 1999) recommendations and tested on a group with high exposure to the gambling environment. In total, 533 gaming venue employees (aged 18–70 years; 67% women) completed a questionnaire that included six 13-item scales measuring accessibility across a range of gambling forms (gaming machines, keno, casino table games, lotteries, horse and dog racing, sports betting). Also included in the questionnaire was the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) along with measures of gambling frequency and expenditure. Principal components analysis indicated that a common three factor structure existed across all forms of gambling and these were labelled social accessibility, physical accessibility and cognitive accessibility. However, convergent validity was not demonstrated with inconsistent correlations between each subscale and measures of gambling behaviour. These results are discussed in light of exposure theory and the further development of a multi-dimensional measure of gambling accessibility.     

Use of online crowdsourcing platforms for gambling research

Crowdsourcing platforms like Amazon’s Mechnical Turk and Crowdflower have been touted to be a cost-effective way to collect large amounts of behavioural data. Across four large-n studies, gambling-related behaviours, tendencies and traits among participants in these labour markets were examined. In Studies 1 and 2, both conducted on Crowdflower, problem gamblers (as measured by the benchmark Problem Gambling Severity Index) comprised 24.5% and 21.9% of participants, respectively. In Study 3, conducted on Mechanical Turk, problem gamblers comprised 9.0% of participants. In Study 4, a two-wave longitudinal study conducted on Crowdflower, problem gamblers comprised 13.5% of participants in wave one and 14.8% of participants in wave two. In Studies 2 and 3, strong convergent associations were demonstrated across various measures of problem gambling tendencies and general gambling involvement. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that gambling was associated with personality traits (impulsivity, sensation-seeking, self-control), risk attitudes, affect, and behavioural risk-taking consistent with previous research. In Study 4, it was demonstrated that measures of problem gambling have acceptable test-retest reliability. Online crowdsourcing platforms appear to offer access to samples with remarkably high proportions of problem gamblers. However, this characteristic means that such samples are not necessarily representative of gambling tendencies among more general populations.     

The Gambling Cognitions Inventory: scale development and psychometric validation with problem and pathological gamblers

Cognitive distortions are typically identified as an important etiological factor in pathological gambling. The Gambling Cognitions Inventory (GCI) developed by Holub (2003) is examined in this study using a sample of 710 pathological gamblers collected in four Canadian studies. Confirmatory factor analysis did not support the initial 40-item scale and suggested a 33-item scale. The sample was split into two groups to conduct exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Scree plots and parallel analysis suggested a two-factor scale. The scale developed by exploratory factor analysis on the first sample was supported by confirmatory factor analysis on the second sample (CFI>0.95; RMSEA < 0.05). The two factors indicated a Skill and Attitude subscale and a Luck and Chance subscale. Analysis conducted within each of the four studies showed good internal reliability for the scale (range of α = 0.91–0.95) and subscales (α = 0.77–0.92). The scale and subscales correlated with gambling severity measures as well as other measures of gambling cognitions including the Gambling Attitudes and Beliefs Scale and the Gambling Beliefs Questionnaire. The results of the study indicate that the GCI is a psychometrically strong scale and may be beneficial in directing cognitive therapy to the most problematic cognitions.     

Prevalence of Adult Problem and Pathological Gambling between 2000 and 2005: An Update

Background Excessive gambling is a prominent Public Health problem with high prevalence rates in many countries. Substance abuse and other co-morbidities often constitute a major health hazard for the person which gambles with a loss of material and social resources, as well as being a major concern for his or her significant others. The present study updates and extends prevalence data to include work published between 2000 and 2005 in English and other European languages. Methods In a three-step search and exclusion process, studies with current adult prevalence rates were gathered. Results Almost all studies fulfil basic research standards. The weighted mean prevalence rates for excessive gambling (problem and pathological) are 3.0% for the South Oaks Gambling Survey (problem 1.2%; pathological 1.8%), 3.3% for the Canadian Problem Gambling Index (problem 2.4%; pathological 0.8%) and 3.1% for the DSM-IV (problem 1.9%; pathological 1.2%). Conclusion The prevalence rates are comparable and relatively stable between countries and across survey instruments, and do not differ from earlier reviews. The regular epidemiological monitoring of excessive gambling remains a major Public Health issue although the distinction between pathological and problem gambling is not appropriate for epidemiological research. Further studies are needed with respect to concomitant lifestyle characteristics.     

Evaluating the Problem Gambling Severity Index

A large, integrated survey data set provided by the Ontario Problem Gambling Centre was used to investigate psychometric properties of the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI). This nine-item self-report instrument was designed to measure a single, problem gambling construct. Unlike its nearest competitor—the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS)—the PGSI was designed specifically for use with a general population rather than in a clinical context. The present analyses demonstrated that the PGSI does assess a single, underlying, factor, but that this is complicated by different, multiple factor structures for respondents with differing levels of problem gambling severity. The PGSI also demonstrated small to moderate correlations with measures of gambling frequency and faulty cognitions. Overall, the PGSI presents a viable alternative to the SOGS for assessing degrees of problem gambling severity in a non-clinical context.

The South Oaks Gambling Screen-revised Adolescent (SOGS-RA) Revisited: A Cut-point Analysis

The lack of a criterion validity gold standard defining adolescent pathological gambling represents a major limitation of the adolescent gambling literature. The present study employed Receiver Operating Characteristic curve analysis (ROC) to examine the performance of the South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised Adolescent (SOGS-RA) recommended cut-point of 4 against two-proxy gold standards: self-identified need for, or receipt of, help for gambling. Logistic regression analysis examined the correlates of self-identified need for help with gambling. The sample was comprised of 12990 adolescents from Atlantic Canada whose average age was 15 years and 50% of whom were male. The SOGS-RA performed as well or better with these proxy gold standards than with proxies used in previous studies. We concluded that the proxy gold standards based on self-identified need for or receipt of help represent a pragmatic solution to the lack of an adolescent-specific definition of problem or pathological gambling. Students in grade seven and SOGS-RA scores of 4 or greater were independent predictors of self-identifying a need for help.     

Convergent validity of personal space measures: Consistent results with low intercorrelations

Low correlations among personal space measures have been used as evidence against their convergent validity. This argument is analyzed and found limited to personality trait assumptions. Convergent validity more generally concerns whether findings from one measure generalize to other measures. In the present study 91 subjects completed three measures (a disguised interaction distance, figure placement distances, and the Comfortable Interpersonal Distance Scale) under different conditions of subject sex, sex of the other person, and acquaintance with the other person. The three measures showed an average intercorrelation ofr = .034, but consistent significant effects of acquaintance. These findings demonstrate that convergence of findings may be obtained even when measures are not highly correlated. The search for convergent validity should concentrate on the generalizability of findings rather than correlations among measures.     

Gambling and Correlates of Gambling Among Minnesota Public School Students

This study examines the prevalence of gambling and measures the relationships between gambling behavior and a number of demographic, psychosocial, and behavioral variables among Minnesota public school students. The sample includes 78,582 male and female Minnesota public school students enrolled in the 9th and 12th grades. Students were administered the 1998 Minnesota Student Survey, a 121-item, anonymous, self-administered, paper-and-pencil questionnaire that inquires about multiple health-related content domains, including gambling behavior. The majority of students were found to have gambled at least once during the past year, however, most students did not report gambling frequently, nor did they report problems associated with their gambling. Boys reported gambling more often than girls, and older students gambled more often than younger students. A larger percentage of Mexican/Latin American, African American, American Indian, and mixed race students gambled at weekly and daily rates than Asian American and Caucasian students. Variables associated with gambling frequency included antisocial behavior, gender (being a male), alcohol and tobacco use, age, feeling bad about the amount of money they bet, a desire to stop gambling, and increased sexual activity. Gambling appears to be related to other risk-taking behaviors and may be a part of the adolescent experimentation with adult behaviors.     

Electronic Gaming Machine Gambling: Measuring Motivation

Electronic gambling machines (EGMs) are known to be a particularly risky form of gambling (Petry. Addiction 98(5):645–655, 2003). It is vital that researchers and clinicians are aware of factors which could lead to people having problems with this form. Gambling motivation is one such factor. This study developed a measure of EGM gambling motivations based on the results of qualitative research conducted with EGM problem gamblers and experienced counsellors (Thomas et al. Int J Mental Health Addiction 7:97–107, 2009). A community based sample of 232 females (M = 29.60 years of age, SD = 15.41 years) and 123 males (M = 29.64 years of age, SD = 12.29 years) participated. Exploratory factor analysis extracted three motivational factors indicating people gambled on EGMs to escape, for its accessibility and for the social environment. Gambling to escape and for its accessibility had substantial positive correlations with frequency of EGM gambling and gambling problems. Social environment correlated less well with these indicators of excessive gambling. Correlations between factors suggested the accessible, social experience offered by EGM venues increases their appeal as a means of escape. The new subscales were internally consistent and demonstrated good evidence of validity. This new measure will facilitate future investigations into the relationships between gambling motivations, other aetiological factors and EGM problem gambling.     

SOGS and DSM-IV in the British Gambling Prevalence Survey: Reliability and Factor Structure

This article examines the psychometric performance and reliability of two problem gambling scales (the South Oaks Gambling Screen [SOGS], and a scale based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (4th edn) [DSM-IV]) and their constituent items, based upon data from the first British Gambling Prevalence Survey (Sproston et al ., 2000). Separate factor analyses of SOGS items and DSM-IV items suggested the existence of two independent factors in each case: dependence and gambling-related problems. Scores based upon SOGS and DSM factors correlated only moderately. It is concluded that no single existing screening questionnaire adequately reflects the multi-dimensional nature of problem gambling.     

An assessment of the validity and reliability of the SOGS-RA

The present is a validation study seeking to determine the degree of confidence that can be placed on inferences about problem gambling among adolescents in the Atlantic provinces, based on their South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised for Adolescents (SOGS-RA) scores. The major source of data was a 1998 survey of 13,549 students in junior and high school of the public school systems of the 4 Atlantic provinces of Canada. The SOGS-RA was found to have adequate stability and internal consistency reliability. Statistically significant gender differences were demonstrated relative to endorsement and construct validity. Regarding the latter, this study shows that the existing cut-point of the SOGS-RA score for problem gambling identifies as problem gamblers, markedly different proportions of male than female daily gamblers. Regarding construct validity in relation to the Atlantic Alcohol and Drug Risk Continua, this study suggests that while statistically highly significant, the association between problem gambling and substance-related problems may be of low clinical significance. Regarding criterion validity, there is an urgent need to perform the types of enquiry that will allow clarification about how adolescent problem gambling is conceptualized, by adults versus adolescents, by males versus females, and from a clinical versus a public or population health perspective.