Behavioural Outcomes of Psychological Contract Breach in a Non‐Western Culture: The Moderating Role of Equity Sensitivity*

This study tests the effects of psychological contract breach on several employee outcomes: workplace deviant behaviours directed at the organization (WD‐O) and its organizational members (WD‐I), in‐role performance, and organizational citizenship behaviours directed at the organization (OCB‐O) and its co‐workers (OCB‐I). It also examines the moderating effects of equity sensitivity in the relationship between breach and these outcomes. Data were collected from 162 sales executives and their direct supervisors. We found that breach was related to all behavioural outcomes. Equity sensitivity and breach also interacted in predicting OCB‐I, OCB‐O and WD‐I. The negative relationships between breach and OCB‐O and OCB‐I were stronger for employees with an outcome‐focused approach to organizational relationships than for those with an input‐focused approach. In addition, breach had stronger positive effects on WD‐I especially for those individuals who are output‐oriented compared to those who are input‐focused.     

Selection system orientations as an explanation for the differences between dual leaders of the same organization in their perception of organizational performance

We investigate to what extent individual managers operating in a dual leadership structure have different perceptions of how well his/her organization is performing. Using selection system theory we develop hypotheses on the relationships between a leader’s selection system orientation and his/her perception of performance along multiple dimensions: market performance, expert performance and peer performance. The hypotheses are tested using dyadic data from 59 organizations in the performing arts led by two—hierarchically equivalent—managers. Our results show that dual leaders’ differences in terms of market orientation and expert orientation relate positively to perceived performance differences along the same dimensions. This relationship is not found with respect to peer selection orientation. Generally, the relationship between orientation differences and perceived performance differences is stronger if the process of interpreting signals to construct a perception of organizational performance leaves more room for equivocality and uncertainty.     

The Impact of Transformational Leadership on Organizational Citizenship Behaviours: The Contingent Role of Public Service Motivation

In this paper we examine whether the relationship between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) is contingent on public service motivation (PSM). We propose that PSM may reduce the motivational influences of transformational leaders’ behaviours on followers’ OCBs in public sector organizations. Using a sample of Mexican employees we tested this proposition with structural equation modelling. Our results show that the motivational effects of transformational leadership were less for public sector followers higher in PSM than for those lower in PSM. A follow‐up study in private sector organizations did not reveal a similar interaction effect. These findings appear consistent with previous research demonstrating that PSM is more aligned to the goals and values of public rather than private sector organizations. Nevertheless, the direct effects of PSM on OCBs remained in the private sector.     

High Performance Work Systems and Organizational Performance: An Empirical Study on Manufacturing and Service Organizations in Pakistan

A two level analysis was conducted to examine the impact of High Performance Work Systems (HPWS) on organizational performance by investigating four most prevailing theories in HPWS literature i.e., human capital (Resource based view), social exchange, relational coordination, employee attitudes and behaviours. It was proposed that HPWS predicts improved organizational performance and this relationship can be strengthened through intervention of human capital development, degree of social exchange among organizations and its members and productive relationships among employees. It was further argued that HPWS results into employee motivation, job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviours, which ultimately results into better organizational performance. Results from 17 manufacturing and service organizations confirmed the significance of association of implemented and perceived HPWS with managerial and employee rated organizational performance. Mediation analysis confirmed the contribution of human capital, social exchange, relational coordination and OCB towards organizational performance but no influence was found for employee attitudes on HPWS-performance linkage.     

Are transformational leaders fair? A multi-level study of transformational leadership,justice perceptions,and organizational citizenship behaviors

This study examined the psychological processes that might underlie the relationship between transformational leadership (i.e., individualized consideration and charisma) and individual- and group-level multifocal organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). In doing so, we focused on the potential mediating role of individual- and group-level justice perceptions of a follower(s) in transformational leadership processes. Specifically, we hypothesized that at the individual level, a leader's individualized consideration relates to leader-directed OCBs through interpersonal justice, whereas at the group level, a leader's charisma relates to group-directed OCBs through procedural justice climate. The individual- and group-level models as well as the various alternative models were tested using a sample of 159 employees (including 40 supervisors and their immediate subordinates) embedded in 40 groups from 25 branches of a large, multinational bank in Korea. The results supported our hypothesized relationships, suggesting that individual- and group-level justice perceptions play important roles in the linkage between transformational leadership behaviors and OCBs at both the individual and the group levels.     

The servant leadership advantage: When perceiving low differentiation in leader-member relationship quality influences team cohesion,team task performance and service OCB

How does servant leaders' unique ability to place each follower's needs above their own influence relationships between followers and impact their collective performance? In a study that integrates principles of servant leadership with the social comparison theoretical framework, we tested a group-level model to examine how servant leadership induces low perceived differentiation in leader-member relationship quality (perceived LMX differentiation) within a group, which strengthens team cohesion and in turn positively influences team task performance and service-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors (service OCB). Our sample comprised 229 employees nested in 67 work teams. Structural equation modeling results indicate that servant leadership significantly predicts low perceived LMX differentiation; perceived LMX differentiation is strongly related to team cohesion such that the lower the perceived differentiation, the stronger the team's cohesiveness. And, team cohesion is also strongly related to both the team's task performance and service OCB. Perceived LMX differentiation and team cohesion mediate the effect of servant leadership on both team task performance and service OCB.     

Bringing Carl Rogers Back In: Exploring the Power of Positive Regard at Work

We draw on Carl Rogers’ client‐centred therapy theory and the theoretical lens of positive work relationships to explain why and how positive regard can be a powerful source for the development of employees’ sense of vitality, job performance and organizational citizenship behaviours (OCBs). We theorize that when employees experience relationships characterized by a high level of regard with their co‐workers they are likely to develop a sense of vitality, which in turn results in enhanced job performance and OCBs. These relationships are examined in both experimental and field studies. The results of these multiple studies provide general support for the power of positive regard in augmenting a sense of vitality and enhancing both job performance and citizenship behaviours.     

How leaders' emotional displays shape followers' organizational citizenship behavior

We examined the effects of happy and angry expressions of leaders on followers' organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). OCB involves behaviors that benefit an organization, but fall outside of formal job requirements and reward structures (Bateman & Organ, 1983). We show that leaders' emotional displays play a role in encouraging or discouraging OCB. In contrast to previous evidence that anger displays can increase follower motivation and in-role performance, Study 1 (a scenario study among employees of various companies) revealed a decrease in willingness to perform OCB after a leader expressed anger rather than happiness. In Study 2 (a lab experiment involving university students), participants expended less effort working overtime after being confronted with an angry rather than a happy leader. In both studies, the detrimental effects of anger were stronger when the anger was perceived as inappropriate. We conclude that anger may decrease OCB, especially when the target considers it inappropriate.     

Confidence Matters: Self‐efficacy Moderates the Credit that Supervisors Give to Adaptive and Proactive Role Behaviours

In complex and uncertain work environments, employees need to not only be proficient in carrying out their core duties, but also to be adaptive (able to cope and respond to unpredictable events) and proactive (able to anticipate the situation and act in a self‐directed way) in their work roles. In this study we investigate the extent to which supervisors actually give credit to adaptive and proactive role behaviours when they judge employees’ overall job performance. Drawing on attribution theory, we propose that the extent to which these role behaviours are valued by supervisors will be enhanced by employees’ confidence for relevant role behaviours. Support for these ideas is provided using data from junior doctors and their supervisors in a hospital emergency department. Adaptive role behaviours positively influenced supervisors’ judgements of overall job performance. This relationship was stronger for employees with high self‐efficacy for achieving outcomes. Engaging in proactive role behaviours while also lacking role‐breadth self‐efficacy resulted in supervisors’ giving employees less credit for their proactive role behaviours. Findings support the argument that employees’ self‐efficacy for specific role behaviours provides attributional cues about capability that modify how adaptive and proactive role behaviours are interpreted and valued.     

Outcome favorability in the link between leader–member exchange and organizational citizenship behavior: Procedural fairness climate matters

The study developed an integrated model of the relationship among leader–member exchange (LMX), outcome favorability, procedural fairness climate and employee organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Using three-phrase multilevel data from multiple sources collected from 238 employees working with 42 supervisors at manufacturing firms in China, we found that (1) LMX was positively related to outcome favorability and OCB, (2) procedural fairness climate moderated the relationship between outcome favorability and OCB, and (3) the indirect effect of LMX on OCB (via outcome favorability) was stronger when procedural fairness climate was high rather than low. The study provides insight on the LMX–OCB relationship and the integration of LMX and fairness research.     

Emotional strain and organizational citizenship behaviours: A meta-analysis and review

This paper provides a qualitative review and quantitative summary of the relationship between emotional strain and organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB), and discusses five potential moderators of the strain-OCB relationship. OCB refers to discretionary behaviours that benefit organizations and their members. Emotional strain is important to consider because it has a broad impact on employee behaviours and is possibly more fundamental than other forms of strain. However, it has received less attention than aspects of job-related strain, such as job dissatisfaction. Based on the results of 29 empirical studies with 52 unique effect sizes, meta-analytic results revealed a negative relationship between strain and OCB (corrected estimate of the population correlation coefficient, ρ=-.16). Furthermore, this relationship is moderated by the type of OCB (OCB directed at the organization vs. that directed at individuals), type of organization (private vs. public), publication status (published vs. unpublished), OCB rating source (self vs. other), and type of sample (full-time employees vs. employed students). We present theoretical and practical implications of these findings, including steps that could be taken by organizations to increase OCB and to reduce emotional strain, and suggest directions for future research.     

A missing link: psychological ownership as a mediator between transformational leadership and organizational citizenship behaviour

Interest in psychological ownership (PO) has increased due to its influence on employees’ attitudes and behaviours. This study focuses on PO as a mediator between transformational leadership (TL) and organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) in the Korean public sector, which does not have employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs). With a total of 214 cases from the Korean public sector, structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis was conducted, and chi-square difference-based model comparison was performed to examine the mediating effect. Results indicated statistically significant relationships between TL and employees’ PO and between employees’ PO and their OCB. A statistically significant full mediating role of PO between TL and OCB in the Korean public sector context was found.     

Leader-member exchange and organizational citizenship behaviors: Contextual effects of leader power distance and group task interdependence

In this paper we explore the context of the relationship between leader-member exchange and organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB). We maintain that workgroup leader's power distance and the extent of task interdependence in the group exert cross-level effects on the LMX-OCB relationship. We assert that leader power distance attenuates the relationship between LMX and OCB, and this effect is stronger in workgroups with high degree of task interdependence. Results of hierarchical linear modeling analysis of data gathered from 245 employees nested in 54 workgroups supported our hypotheses. LMX-OCB relationship was weaker in workgroups led by high power distance leaders. Further, the three-way cross-level interaction between LMX, leader power distance and group task interdependence demonstrated that the tendency for LMX to have a stronger positive effect on OCB when leader power distance was low rather than high was more pronounced in high task interdependence teams.     

Perceptions of ethical climate and organizational justice as antecedents to employee performance: The mediating role of employees' attributions of leader effectiveness

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the mediating role of employee attributions of leader effectiveness on relationships between perceptions of (a) ethical climate and (b) organizational justice and both positive and negative types of performance. We argue that these relatively under-investigated perceptions are critical antecedents to effective productivity in the workplace. Accordingly, this study is the first to examine the associations of both ethical climate and organizational justice on both positive and negative performance within the context of mediation via employee attributions of leader effectiveness. Based on online survey data from 2486 Romanian employees, our SEM-based findings reveal that the attribution of leader effectiveness functions as a mediator between the associations of ethical climate and justice perceptions on two distinct types of performance: (1) Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) and (2) Counterproductive Work Behaviors (CWB).Additionally, the results revealed that trait negative affect moderates the mediating role of leader effectiveness with OCB but not with CWB. This study contributes to the recent and growing interest in the mediating role of attributions regarding work performance. Several theoretical contributions and practical implications are discussed concerning leader-specific attributions, employee empowerment, and employee performance. Most prominently, we discuss why individuals with strong trait negative affect may engage in CWB without the influence of ethical climate or organizational justice.     

Training perceptions,engagement, and performance: comparing work engagement and personal role engagement

The purpose of this study was to compare two engagement constructs (work engagement and personal role engagement) with regard to their relationship with training perceptions and work role performance behaviours. It was hypothesised that personal role engagement would show incremental validity above that of work engagement at predicting work role performance behaviours and be a stronger mediator of the relationships between training perceptions and such behaviours. Questionnaire data were gathered from 304 full-time working adults in the UK. As predicted, personal role engagement was found to explain additional variance above that of work engagement for task proficiency, task adaptability, and task proactivity behaviours. Moreover, personal role engagement was a stronger mediator of the relationship between training perceptions and task proficiency as well as between training perceptions and task adaptability. Both work engagement and personal role engagement mediated the relationship between training perceptions and task proactivity to a similar degree. The findings suggest that personal role engagement has better practical utility to the human resource development domain than work engagement and indicates that future research may benefit from adopting the personal role engagement construct.     

Collaboration-based HR systems and innovative work behaviors: The role of information exchange and HR system strength

Integrating strategic human resource (HR) management research with the componential theory of creativity, we investigate the influence of a strategically anchored set of HR practices on employees’ idea generation, promotion, and realization (i.e., innovative work behaviors (IWBs). Specifically, we argue that perceived collaboration-based HR systems rated by employees facilitate IWBs through promoting information exchange. We take a multilevel approach and further propose that the strength of a collaboration-based HR system at the unit-level (i.e., shared employee perceptions) moderates the relationship between employee perceptions of such systems and information exchange. We propose that this relation will be stronger in units with greater levels of collaboration-based HR system strength. We test our model by collecting data at two different time points from 204 employees in 50 departments working at seven manufacturing organizations in Turkey. Results from multilevel and structural equation modeling support all hypotheses and point to the theoretical importance of taking into account idiosyncratic and collective perceptions of HR systems simultaneously. Practical implications that follow from our results suggest intentionally designing, implementing, and regularly communicating collaboration-based HR practices to facilitate IWBs.     

Creating clover

This study empirically examines how different types of leadership behaviour affect perceived job performance of leaders in different cultures, specifically comparing the U.S. and four Confucian Asian countries. Using a large archival database of a multisource feedback instrument assessing leadership behaviours and overall perceived job performance of managers in these countries, this study analyses the influence of leadership behaviours on perceived job performance. The results suggest that charismatic and directive leadership behaviours are positively related to perceived job performance of leaders in all countries studied, whereas the influence of supportive leadership behaviour is not as strong as charismatic and directive leadership behaviours. Surprisingly, participative leadership behaviour is not associated with perceived job performance of leaders in the countries studied except for Japan. Research implications and limitations are discussed.     

Organizational citizenship behaviour for collectivist cultures: instrument development and human resource development implications

Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) is an increasingly examined construct in human resource development (HRD) research. The OCB construct is noted for being heavily influenced by culture leading to renewed calls for the development of OCB definitions and measurement approaches that can be used internationally. This study developed an OCB measurement appropriate for use in a collectivist society using Thailand as the setting. A literature review and a series of interviews with human resource directors were used for item generation. A survey of 1779 employees and 751 supervisors was then conducted to examine the cultural appropriateness of classifying the items as either in-role or citizenship behaviours in order to reduce the number of items. The resulting 35-item instrument was tested with survey data from 451 employees. Results showed acceptable validity for the instrument with conclusions and discussion highlighting the need for future analysis and refinement for further application of culturally relevant measures for use in international HRD research and professional practice.     

Leadership behaviour and leader self-reported well-being: A review,integration and meta-analytic examination

ABSTRACT

While the link between leadership and follower well-being is well established, less is known about the relation between leaders’ leadership behaviour and their own well-being. Particularly, a systematic integration of existing studies is missing. Based on an integrated framework summarising major theories on the leader well-being–leadership link, we quantitatively synthesised findings on the relations between different leadership behaviours and leader well-being indicators. The meta-analytical results (95 effect sizes; N?=?12,617) confirmed significant relationships of constructive and destructive leadership with leader well-being in the expected directions. Relative weight analyses on the constructive leadership behaviours showed that change-oriented and relational-oriented leadership (e.g. transformational, participative) accounted for more variance in leader well-being than task-oriented leadership (e.g. transactional). Regarding destructive leadership, active destructive leadership (e.g. abusive supervision) showed stronger negative associations with leader well-being than passive leadership (e.g. laissez-faire). Based on our integrated framework, we proposed and found support for divergent patterns of associations for different forms of well-being (positive vs. negative, short-term vs. long-term, job-related vs. general). Our study demonstrates a considerable linkage between leader well-being and leadership, supporting the adoption of leadership development programmes and organisational health interventions for leaders given their impact on employees, teams and organisations.     

Signs of struggle (SOS): The development and validation of a behavioural mental health checklist for the workplace

ABSTRACT

For managers to successfully support employee access to mental health resources, they must first be able to recognise if and when an employee may need help. To manage employees effectively, managers must be able to recognise changes in employees’ work behaviour that may indicate when an employee is struggling at work. In study 1, we develop and establish the structure of the 20-item Signs of Struggle (SOS) checklist as comprising five factors that describe the warning signs of health impairment at work (i.e. distress, withdrawal, reduced attendance, degradations in performance, extreme behaviours). In study 2, we show that manager-rated signs of struggle correlated substantially (r?=?.72) with participant-reported strain. The SOS tool provides managers a way to recognise when employees may be struggling and could benefit from workplace resources. We recommend that for maximal benefit, managers also receive training on how to use the SOS, and also on how to approach and assist employees who are displaying warning signs.