Wanting To Be Remembered: Intrinsically Rewarding Work and Generativity in Early Midlife

Previous research on generativity, the desire to leave a legacy through establishing and guiding the next generation, has focused primarily on family life and civic engagement as pathways to midlife generativity. This paper proposes that intrinsically rewarding work can also be associated with a heightened sense of generativity in midlife. We test this hypothesis with data (n = 369 employed individuals, approximately 43 years old) from the 2010 wave of the Edmonton Transitions Study. Civic engagement was positively associated with midlife generativity, as predicted, but the hypothesized positive relationship between generativity and perceived parenting success was not found. Taking into account civic engagement and perceived parenting success, and controlling on a range of other variables, intrinsically rewarding work was positively associated with midlife feelings of generativity.     

The Bloom Is on the Rose

Summary

This paper argues for the value of an adult developmental perspective in work with lesbian couples. Focusing on midlife, case examples illustrate issues and situations that create strength and satisfaction, as well as those that create stress and disappointment. Key themes include expansiveness and generativity, differentiation, awareness of past and future, reorganizing priorities, finitude, caregiving stress, infidelity, midlife crisis, self-growth, and the different impact of homophobia on three cohorts of midlife lesbians. Implications for therapeutic intervention are described, with particular emphasis on case formulation and treatment planning that explicitly provides couples with an understanding of the sociohistorical and adult developmental context in which their difficulties arise.     

Older Women in Poverty: The Impact of Midlife Factors

This study investigates the factors contributing to older women's economic well‐being from a life course perspective, assessing the effects of both midlife characteristics and later life events on women between the ages of 66–70, and 71–85. Using the 1968–1997 Panel Study of Income Dynamics, the findings suggest that midlife characteristics such as workforce participation, income, and rural residence are strongly related to economic outcomes in old age. Late‐life events and characteristics, however, also contribute significantly to economic outcomes even when midlife factors are incorporated into analyses. In addition, both midlife and later life characteristics contribute to the persistence of poverty in old age, with many groups of ever poor women finding themselves in poverty for over 50% of their old age years.     

Generativity and aging: A promising future research topic?

Erikson already emphasized the importance of staying generative in old age. The concept of generativity as an important element in human development, significantly impacting on one's ability to age successfully, was discussed later by other authors as well. However, so far generativity has not received much attention in gerontology. This review summarizes and discusses the most important theoretical approaches, measurement methods, and empirical findings with regard to their relevance for gerontological research. This includes age-specific generative aspects, a critical discussion of current scales measuring generativity in older adults, and exploring empirical findings with regard to the association between generativity and successful aging. Finally, open questions concerning generativity and aging will be addressed.     

Program Evaluation of “Young at Heart”

Abstract

We conducted a program evaluation study of “Young at Heart,” a Texas (United States) program that places elderly volunteers in childcare settings. The main constructs evaluated in this research-based article are Erikson's generativity (a motivation to guide younger generations) and life satisfaction. We compared four groups of elderly persons on these constructs: Young at Heart volunteers, Meals on Wheels volunteers (who deliver food to other elderly persons and thus gain volunteer experience, but not with children), non-volunteers drawn from the general population of one Texas community, and individuals in the same community who volunteered in a variety of activities (“miscellaneous volunteers”). Our guiding assumption was that volunteering with children would appear to be a clear expression of generativity; we thus hypothesized that YAH volunteers would score highest in it. Contrary to prediction, the miscellaneous volunteers averaged the highest generativity, followed by YAH volunteers. Philosophical and conceptual issues are identified with regard to research on generativity and intergenerational programming.     

Women making sense of midlife: Ethnic and cultural diversity

Within social gerontology and the sociology of ageing there has been a tendency to focus on ageing and midlife as a period characterised by adaptation, consumption and commodification of the body (e.g. Biggs, S. (1997). Choosing not to be Old? Masks, bodies and identity management in later life. Ageing and Society 17: 553–70; Featherstone, M., & Hepworth, M. 1996. The midlifestyle of ‘George and Lynne’: Notes on a popular strip. In The Body: Social Process and Cultural Theory, edited by M. Featherstone, M. Hepworth and B. Turner. London: Sage). This has highlighted the extent to which an ageing appearance might impact on the formation of identity and self during midlife. However, a limitation of this focus is a lack of attention to the significance of ethnic and cultural diversity on how midlife is experienced and enacted. In this paper it is argued, such theorisations tend to overlook the complex meanings attached to midlife and how these are often bound up with past, current, and future ethnic and cultural belief systems and values. Based on empirical research with women from diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds, this paper seeks to examine the different meanings women attach to midlife. It considers the extent to which current theories of ageing have neglected experiences of midlife that are not structured around Western concerns and priorities. The main argument is that women's priorities throughout midlife differ significantly in relation to cultural and ethnic affiliation and background.     

Adolescent Generativity: A Longitudinal Study of Two Possible Contexts for Learning Concern for Future Generations

The purpose of the present study was to investigate developmental pathways to Erikson's (1959) construct of generativity, defined as care and concern for the next generation and traditionally viewed as important for midlife adults, in a late adolescent sample. A sample of 198 adolescents was followed three times over a 6‐year period, from ages 17 to 23. Questionnaire measures of generative concern, parenting style, community involvement, and personal adjustment were collected. Adolescents' generative concern was positively related to good adjustment, as has been observed previously among adults. Generative concern at age 23 was predicted by earlier reports of family authoritative parenting, and especially by higher levels of earlier prosocial community involvement among these adolescents. Overall, results suggest that generativity may be a developing element in the domain of prosocial moral concern in later adolescence, and that family and community roots may be important in its establishment.     

Adult Children of Divorce: Awareness and Intervention

Parental midlife divorce impacts children who are adults at the time of the separation event. This article examines the family life cycle and stages as well as the transitions that occur when parents divorce at midlife. Specifically, the divorce impacts on the adult children are examined in relation to their unique life stage. Therapeutic practice implications and theories will also be explored in relation to assisting adult children of divorce reconcile the divorce experience of their parents.     

WE HAVEN'T TALKED IN 30 YEARS!

The phenomenon of reconnection of dormant ties using internet communication technologies has been identified as having salience in the use of social media forms by midlife and older adults. Dormant ties, as distinguished from those that are merely inactive, are those that were once operational, but which have lapsed under the stressors of time, distance and circumstance, such as relationships between former college friends, neighbors or work colleagues. Reconnection is the process by which these dormant ties become active again, and is an activity which is supported in unique ways by internet communication technologies. This study presents findings from interviews with midlife adults on how the use of email, social network sites and search engines is leveraged to enhance and support the reconnection of dormant relationships and maintain weak ties. Grounded in a life course perspective, it examines how the experiences of longevity and the life course alter perceptions of the attributes and drawbacks that these technologies offer. By examining adults at midlife, a less-well studied group than teens and young adults, this work provides a more nuanced perspective of the technological practices at varied points in life, and offers insight on how various communication technologies might be utilized at different life stages.     

Conceptualization for planning and evaluation

Conceptualization is a central task in planning and evaluation. There is a need to develop conceptualization methods which can help multiple constituency groups collaborate on the development of conceptual frameworks which can guide the planning and evaluation effort. A general model for conceptualization methods is presented along with considerations for implementation. This model is illustrated in two planning and evaluation studies which involved a broad range of constituent groups within the organizations in the development of "concept maps" which could guide subsequent work. Some general implications of conceptualization methods for planning and evaluation are discussed.     

A life course approach: research orientations and future challenges

The need to study lifelong changes in health and functioning has resulted in increasing emphasis on a life course approach in different fields of inquiry. The aim of this approach is to explore how biological, psychological, and social risk factor trajectories, acting across the entire life course, influence age-related diseases, functional decline, and disability. The importance of the first years of life upon later development and adult characteristics was generally recognized already in the first half of the twentieth century, but it was not until the 1990s that different strands of medical and social research converge in the field of life course epidemiology, in which epidemiological processes are approached using different models such as biological programming, critical periods, pathways, and accumulation. The biological programming model holds that organ development in utero and early infancy determines the maximum functional capacity that an individual can attain and influences the development of certain chronic diseases later in life. The critical period model extends the idea to include child development and key social transitions over the entire life course. The pathway model focuses on the cumulative effect of life events along the developmental trajectories, with early advantage or disadvantage setting a person on a pathway to a later etiologically important exposure. The accumulation model describes the underlying social, behavioral, and biological processes that drive the impact of the life course on health. The growing focus on life course determinants of aging also has implications for studies of long-term changes in physical activity and their role in determining both gains and losses of health and functioning with aging. A life course approach presents great challenges for the continued development of testable theoretical models and effective study design and analysis.     

Generative Ritual Among Nonmetropolitan Lesbians and Gay Men: Promoting Social Inclusion

Generativity is typically studied as a normative adult inclination expressed through social roles (D.P. McAdams & E. de St. Aubin, 1992). We extend this research by examining generativity through the lenses of social marginality and ritual. Toward this end, we utilize in‐depth interview and observational data about family rituals from 49 downstate Illinois residents who participated in a larger survey of nonmetropolitan lesbian and gay life. We first examine their ritual intentions and the locations where they are enacted. Then we identify what makes the rituals generative and identify their facilitating and moderating conditions. The findings suggest a distinction between normative and queer generativity. Our final product is a substantive grounded theory of generativity among sexual minorities that extends current theory.     

PASSAGE THROUGH MIDLIFE:

Life course researchers have recently examined the effects of normative and non-normative pathways into adulthood but little theoretical or empirical attention has been directed at the manner and type of transitions through the middle years of the life span for women. Women in midlife typically watch their last child leave the home and significant numbers also experience the dissolution of their marriages, either by divorce or widowhood. Using data from thirteen waves of the University of Michigan Panel Study of Income Dynamics, we find that the occurrence, sequencing, and timing of these two events greatly affect both women's labor force attachment and their economic well-being. These findings suggest new directions for conceptualizing midlife transitions for women.     

Convoys of care: Theorizing intersections of formal and informal care

Although most care to frail elders is provided informally, much of this care is paired with formal care services. Yet, common approaches to conceptualizing the formal–informal intersection often are static, do not consider self-care, and typically do not account for multi-level influences. In response, we introduce the “convoy of care” model as an alternative way to conceptualize the intersection and to theorize connections between care convoy properties and caregiver and recipient outcomes. The model draws on Kahn and Antonucci's (1980) convoy model of social relations, expanding it to include both formal and informal care providers and also incorporates theoretical and conceptual threads from life course, feminist gerontology, social ecology, and symbolic interactionist perspectives. This article synthesizes theoretical and empirical knowledge and demonstrates the convoy of care model in an increasingly popular long-term care setting, assisted living. We conceptualize care convoys as dynamic, evolving, person- and family-specific, and influenced by a host of multi-level factors. Care convoys have implications for older adults' quality of care and ability to age in place, for job satisfaction and retention among formal caregivers, and for informal caregiver burden. The model moves beyond existing conceptual work to provide a comprehensive, multi-level, multi-factor framework that can be used to inform future research, including research in other care settings, and to spark further theoretical development.     

The Resiliency Model of Role Performance for Service Members,Veterans, and their Families: A Focus on Social Connections and Individual Assets

The Road of Life, a life course metaphor, is used as the backdrop for a theoretically anchored model, The Resiliency Model of Role Performance, which has been developed to account for variation in the ability of service members and their families to meet their role responsibilities in the context of military life and duties. This model incorporates a focus on both individual assets and the social context in which individuals and families are embedded. The model provides a conceptual anchor for the Support and Resiliency Inventory—an online assessment tool for service members and the civilian spouses of service members. Implications for testing the model and its further development are discussed.     

An Integrative Approach to Teaching Family Resource Management

Abstract

Family resource management is one of ten substance areas that are required for certification in family life education (National Council on Family Relations, 2005). Unfortunately, few discipline-specific resources are available for faculty assigned to teach the family resource management course. A rich tradition of theory and practice in the field has stalled, with little conceptual development since the 1980s to guide faculty teaching the course. In response, we offer a new conceptual framework for teaching family resource management that extends previous models by integrating management with other functions of the family. Specific course objectives, methods of evaluation, classroom activities, recommended materials, and teaching strategies are provided.     

“At My Age … ”: Defining Sexual Wellness in Mid- and Later Life

Sexual wellness is integral to quality of life across the life span, despite ageist stereotypes suggesting sexual expression ends at midlife. However, conceptualizing sexual wellness in mid- and later life is complicated by a dysfunction-based narrative, lack of a sex-positive aging framework, and existing measures that are age irrelevant and limited in scope. This study aimed to address these limitations by providing a conceptualization of sexual wellness grounded in definitions from midlife and older adults. A sample of 373 midlife and older adults (M = 60, SD = 5.84) in the United States provided a definition of sexual wellness. Using thematic analysis, multiple researchers coded qualitative responses, and results suggested a biopsychosocial-cultural framework. Findings reflect that midlife and older adults provide multifaceted definitions inclusive of various behavioral experiences, including disengaging from sex. They are also keenly aware of physical and psychological limitations and strengths, and emphasize mutual experiences and synchronicity. Midlife and older adults also reflect on age, drawing comparisons to different phases of life and often displaying adaptability in adjusting expectations. When conceptualizing sexual wellness in this population it is imperative to capture this multidimensionality, include those who are not actively engaging in sex, and be aware of the influence of ageist and dys/function narratives.     

Theory and method in treatment evaluation

We outline a conceptual model of evaluation research that has both guided and flowed from our research on the process and outcome of treatment for alcohol abuse and for depression. The conceptual model encompasses three basic processes: the process of treatment selection, the process of treatment, and the process underlying the onset and course of the disorder or problem being treated. A theory guiding a program evaluation can focus on one or more of these processes, and findings from evaluations can contribute to the development of better theories of these processes. We discuss how theories can guide both experimental and naturalistic evaluations, as well as aid in the estimation of treatment effects with either type of design. We then consider the role of theory and method in exploring patient-treatment matching. Finally, we discuss the implications of theory-guidance for the utility of evaluations—particularly the utility for evaluation researchers.     

Empowerment:

It has been twenty years since Robert Hill's seminal research on Black family strengths revolutionized the perceptions, attitudes and modalities related to the coping abilities of Black people. His findings were instrumental in effecting changes in a body of knowledge from one that focused on a monolithic, ethnocentric deficit model to one that affirmed strengths within an historical, culturally diverse conceptual framework. Much of the information available is theoretically based on the Euro-centric worldview resulting in limited use, acceptance and credibility among social work practitioners, social policy analysts and social work academicians. This paper revisits the literature relative to the strengths of Black families. Utilizing recent works of Billingsley (1990), Boyd-Franklin (1989) and others, the strengths of Black families will be re-examined for the purposes of comparing Hill's strength model with the contemporary model of African-American families and its implications for social work education, practice and policy. Additionally, new imperatives are described that possibly will insure African-Americans greater power and control over life situations in the decade of the 90s and into the twenty-first century.     

Age and embodied masculinities: Midlife gay and heterosexual men talk about their bodies

This article integrates critical gerontology and masculinities theories to examine how midlife gay and heterosexual men experience their bodies in relation to cultural discourses of aging. Analyses of in-depth interviews with 15 gay and 15 heterosexual men ages 40–60 reveal that while both groups of men describe their bodies as deteriorating or declining in terms of functionality and are often distressed by these changes, midlife gay men also articulate a concern with a perceived decline in bodily appearance. Both gay and heterosexual midlife men frame their bodies as fundamentally different from women's, possibly in an attempt to protect a masculine identity in response to the threat that aging bodies pose to that identity. We argue that midlife men's embodied experiences are shaped by a discourse of midlife decline as well as inequalities between gay and heterosexual men. We also discuss the implications of embodiment for midlife men's well-being.