Masculine Status,Sexual Performance,and the Sexual Stigmatization of Women

Collegiate hookup culture advances ideas of masculinity but contradicts notions of appropriate feminine sexuality. Drawing on focus group and interview data with college students, I examine how a group of class‐ and race‐privileged fraternity men face dilemmas as they enact a group constructed masculinity focused on sexual performance and the objectification of women. I employ a symbolic interactionist framework to illustrate how men, attentive to peer status yet anxious about the sexual stigmatization of women, draw on cultural ideas about appropriate feminine sexuality as they account for their approaches to sex and women (both with whom they interact sexually and how) along a range of intimacy—from hookups to committed relationships. I demonstrate that heterosexual interaction does not unequivocally link to masculine status and that men sometimes strive to limit the impact of casual sex or avoid it altogether.     

Marriage Delay,Time to Play? Marital Horizons and Hooking Up in College

Previous research suggests that an increasing age at first marriage has contributed to the prevalence of sexual hookups on U.S. college campuses. In this article, we use life course and marital horizons theories to analyze the influence of ideal age at first marriage on hooking up among unmarried heterosexual college students. Analyses of the Online College Social Life Survey (N = 17,981) show a positive association between ideal age at first marriage and hookups for most students, but not for students whose mothers have no post‐secondary education, Asian men, Asian women, and Latina women. Variation in ideal marriage timing does not account for gender, racial/ethnic, and class gaps in hookup participation. Results are discussed with reference to the role of sexuality in processes of stratification throughout young adulthood.     

Sexual Assault on College Hookups: The Role of Alcohol and Acquaintances

This article takes a new approach to the study of college sexual assault by conducting an analysis of female students’ most recent “hookup.” By isolating a particular hookup event and examining the features of that event, I am able to examine predictors of sexual assault during hookups. My analysis focuses on the implications of alcohol consumption and knowing a male partner before a hookup, while controlling for multiple individual, school, and situational characteristics, using data from the Online College Social Life Survey collected 2005–2011. In my sample, 2.4% of women experienced sexual assault during their most recent hookup. Results show women do not experience an increased risk of physically forced intercourse until they have consumed nine or more drinks. In addition, women were more likely to report sexual assault during a hookup with a man they did not know well. Together, these findings suggest that men are more likely to assault women who are drunk, possibly because the double standard has made them respect such women less, or because they target women who are likely unable to resist or recall what happened. It also appears that the “in‐network stranger” may be the individual most dangerous to women in college hookups.     

The Shift from Dating to Hooking up in College: What Scholars Have Missed

In recent years, research has been building that suggests dating has been replaced by hooking up as the dominant way for heterosexual students to get together on college campuses. Although recent studies have documented the phenomenon of hooking up, there is evidence that this behavior was likely in place long before it was recognized in the literature. Yet, for the past several decades, scholars have continued to examine 'dating' among college students. This calls into question whether scholars missed a fundamental shift in how heterosexual men and women form sexual and romantic relationships on campus. In this paper, I will (i) review the major findings on hooking up, (ii) explain the differences between traditional dating and hooking up, (iii) explore when traditional dating declined and hooking up emerged on the college campus, and (iv) discuss the effect of this shift on the literature.     

Gendered jocks or equal players? Athletic affiliation and hooking up among college students

ABSTRACT

Previous research has found sex-specific effects of athletic participation on young adult sexuality, with male athletes reporting increased sexual activity and female athletes reporting lower levels of sexual activity relative to non-athlete peers. Yet research has not examined sexual activity by athletic affiliation beyond quantity, nor considered the normative landscape of non-relational college sexual culture. The current paper examines the relationships between sex, athletic affiliation, and hooking up among students at 14 U.S. universities with Division I and II athletics programs. Findings show that, controlling for demographics and background characteristics, 1) male and female athletes participate in hooking up at higher rates than non-athletes, and 2) male athletes have less male dominated hookups in terms of sexual initiation. Results are discussed in terms of the increasing value similarity of men and women's collegiate sports programs.     

Assessing the Personal Negative Impacts of Hooking Up Experienced by College Students: Gender Differences and Mental Health

Hooking up is a normative behavior among college students that is associated with a range of positive and negative consequences. While previous research has primarily focused on women’s negative experiences of hooking up, the current study explored the relationships among hooking up behaviors, psychological distress, and a broad range of negative effects of hooking up in both male and female college students. Using a multisite sample of college students, we developed the 14-item Negative Impact of Hookups Inventory (NIHI) to assess negative health outcomes, emotional responses, and social consequences associated with hooking up. Unprotected sex and having more hookup partners were associated with greater negative experiences of hooking up. Contrary to expectations, there were no gender differences in the total number of negative hookup effects, although men reported more frequent hookups. In addition, negative impacts of hooking up were positively associated with psychological distress regardless of gender. The NIHI may offer a useful tool to assess the negative impacts of hooking up. Understanding students’ hookup experiences is an important step toward developing targeted health interventions related to hooking up behavior in young adult populations.     

Examining the Institutional Features Influencing Sexual Assault at Small Colleges and Universities*

This article explores the relationships between institutional features of small college and university campuses and the levels of reported sexual assault. Using the mandated reporting of crime on campus through the Clery Act, we look at the combined levels of reported sexual assault for the years 2012 and 2013 at the main campuses of all accredited non‐profit, four‐year, residential, undergraduate colleges and universities in the United States that have a student body size of 2,000–2,999 students, N = 198. We find that the presence of a Greek life system, alcohol policy, religious affiliation, and the proportion of male students all influence the levels of reported sexual assault at colleges and universities, with alcohol policy being the strongest influence.     

“Hookups”: Characteristics and correlates of college students' spontaneous and anonymous sexual experiences

This study focused on a specific risky practice common among contemporary college students: the hookup. Hookups are defined as a sexual encounter which may or may not include sexual intercourse, usually occurring on only one occasion between two people who are strangers or brief acquaintances. The aim of this study was to determine the relative importance of a variety of social and psychological predictors in understanding differences among undergraduate students who had never hooked up, those who had hooked up without sexual intercourse, and those who had hooked up with sexual intercourse. Analyses revealed that, as predicted, social, individual, and relational psychological variables helped to explain the variance among college students' varied hookup experiences. By examining the full range of sexual involvement characteristic of the casual sexual phenomenon of hooking up within a multivariate model, we were able to achieve a more differentiated understanding of college students' casual sexual experimentation.     

Development and Validation of the Endorsement of the Hookup Culture Index

Although researchers have examined the predictors and outcomes of the behavioral aspect of “hooking up,” typically defined as casual, commitment-free sexual encounters, research has not yet examined the extent to which young people endorse the culture associated with hooking up. Based on the argument that there is a set of understood rules and assumptions associated with hooking up, this article describes the development of an instrument to measure college students' endorsement of the hookup culture. Results from two studies found that five factors represent endorsement of the hookup culture: (a) a belief that hooking up is harmless and best without emotional commitment, (b) a belief that hooking up is fun, (c) a belief that hooking up will enhance one's status in one's peer group, (d) a belief that hooking up allows one to assert control over one's sexuality, and (e) a belief that hooking up is a reflection of one's sexual freedom. The index also had acceptable internal reliability, and performed well on the tests of construct validity. Taken together, the results suggest that the Endorsement of the Hookup Culture Index is suitable for use by researchers interested in the social phenomenon of hooking up.     

Gender-specific changes in students' sexual behaviors and attitudes at a southeastern university between 1973 and 1988.

This study investigated the gender-specific, self-reported sexual behaviors and attitudes of never-married college students attending a southeastern university in 1973 and 1988. Data were collected by means of a mailed questionnaire that remained essentially unchanged for both years. The authors found that both men and women reported an increase in heterosexual relationships that included sexual intercourse and a decrease in nonsexual relationships with the other gender. The majority of the students perceived themselves as adequately informed about sexuality and satisfied with their relationships, although the proportion of men who reported being satisfied with their relationships declined over the 15 years. The students indicated that sexuality education should focus primarily on information about AIDS and on preparation for marriage.     

The Sexual Possible Selves and Strategies of First-Semester College Students: What Do They Hope for and Fear and How Do They Plan to Get There?

The purpose of this study was to expand research on emerging adult sexuality by examining first-semester college students’ (N = 282) possible selves and strategies related to sex, and by considering whether these varied by demographic characteristics. Students were first asked to describe what they expected and feared regarding sex and sexuality in the coming year and were then asked to articulate strategies for achieving goals and avoiding fears. Content analysis of participants’ responses to open-ended questions revealed that expected possible selves commonly discussed included abstinence, interpersonal relationships, physical/sexual health, and exploration. Fears commonly discussed included reputation, risk-taking behaviors, and rape/assault. Categorical comparisons indicated abstinence and interpersonal relationships were the most prominent foci of expected sexual possible selves (SPS) and strategies, and physical/sexual health was the most prominent focus of feared SPS and strategies. Chi-square analyses indicated significant variations in SPS, feared selves, and strategies based on sex, intercourse experience, and relationship type. Binomial logistic regression analyses indicated religiosity differences in the SPS and strategies of abstinence, explore/experiment, physical/sexual health, interpersonal relationship, and risk-taking behaviors. Implications for research and sexual health education for college-based populations are discussed.     

Class, Culture, and Participation in the Collegiate Extra-Curriculum

With larger percentages of high school students entering higher education, it becomes increasingly important to look at how processes occurring on college campuses contribute to social stratification. Using in‐depth interviews with 61 students, I ask: How does social class structure students’ participation in the collegiate extra‐curriculum? I argue that the collegiate extra‐curriculum is an important site for stratification because it is there that students gain access to social and cultural resources valued by the privileged classes. I find that upper‐middle‐class students arrive on campus with cultural resources that motivate their participation and social resources that facilitate their involvement. Among working‐class students, limited financial factors constrain their involvement, while social and cultural resources further curtail their interest in such activities. These findings contribute to theories of social and cultural reproduction by showing that those who have more valued social and cultural resources at the outset are in a better position to gain additional such resources throughout their college careers. Moreover, these analyses show that symbolic and cultural hierarchies are sustained by the interdependent relationship between social and cultural capital.     

The experience and meaning of same‐sex sexuality among heterosexually identified men and women: An analytic review

The components of sexual orientation, including but not limited to sexual desires, attractions, behaviors, and identities, are generally assumed to align in predictable ways. However, ample research from sociology and other social and behavioral science disciplines shows that for many people, these components do not align as expected. In this article, we focus on individuals who identify as heterosexual and experience same‐sex sexual desires, attractions, and/or behaviors. First, we briefly review the available quantitative data on the prevalence of such experiences and use data from one high‐quality national survey—the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG)—to show that self‐identified heterosexuals account for as much as one‐half of the same‐sex sexuality that is reported. Then, we turn to recent qualitative literature and draw attention to the contexts within which heterosexually identified men and women experience same‐sex sexuality, how they make sense of these experiences, and the interpretive strategies they use to reconcile their same‐sex sexuality with their heterosexual identities and their gendered presentations of self. Finally, we conclude by discussing the significance of this research and pointing to several paths forward for sociologists and other researchers.     

Institutional,Subcultural, and Individual Determinants of Same-Sex Sexual Contact Among College Women

While the collegiate hookup literature identifies the prevalence and conditions under which women engage in same-sex sexual behaviors, less is understood about the macro- and mesolevel features of universities predictive of women’s engagement in these behaviors. How do predictors of same-sex contact differ for women who report engagement in nongenital versus genital sexual acts? Using the Online College Social Life Survey (OCSLS), this study examined 5,069 women from 21 U.S. colleges and universities who reported at least one same-sex encounter in their lifetime to empirically evaluate how same-sex sexual histories are predicted by university structure and membership in student subcultures. Results find subcultural participation to have a regulative effect on what types of sexual behaviors women engaged in with other women. While Greek-affiliated women were significantly more likely to have engaged in solely nongenital sexual behavior, women in team-based athletics were more likely to report a genital sexual history with women. This study’s focus on women’s sexual behaviors as opposed to sexual identity affirms the influence of institutional contexts, subcultural dynamics, and their variability across U.S. campuses in producing the conditions and opportunities for varied forms of sexual interactions among college women.     

Relationship intentions,race, and gender: Student differences in condom use during hookups involving vaginal sex

Abstract

Objective: To examine the relationship between race, gender, and pre-hookup relationship intentions and college students’ participation in condomless vaginal sex. Participants: 3,315 Black and White college students who participated in the Online College Social Life Survey (OCSLS). Methods: Secondary data analysis of the OCSLS using Chi-square and multiple logistic regression analyses. Results: The model revealed that students who did not want a relationship with their hookup partners and students unsure of their relationship intentions were more likely to use condoms during their last vaginal hookup. Further, White and Female students were less likely to have used condoms during their last vaginal hookup.

Conclusions: White and female students, as well as students desiring romantic relationships with hookup partners may be at risk for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) due to decreased condom use. However, more research is needed to explore the factors driving STI disparities facing Black students despite higher condom use.     

Gender-Specific Changes in Students' Sexual Behaviors and Attitudes at a Southeastern University between 1973 and 1988

Abstract

This study investigated the gender-specific, self-reported sexual behaviors and attitudes of never-married college students attending a southeastern university in 1973 and 1988. Data were collected by means of a mailed questionnaire that remained essentially unchanged for both years. The authors found that both men and women reported an increase in heterosexual relationships that included sexual intercourse and a decrease in nonsexual relationships with the other gender. The majority of the students perceived themselves as adequately informed about sexuality and satisfied with their relationships, although the proportion of men who reported being satisfied with their relationships declined over the 15 years. The students indicated that sexuality education should focus primarily on information about AIDS and on preparation for marriage.     

Pluralistic ignorance and Hooking up

“Hooking up “—when two people agree to engage in sexual behavior for which there is no future commitment—has become popular on college campuses. In this study we examined the extent to which pluralistic ignorance affects hooking up. One hundred thirty‐six female and 128 male college students answered questions regarding their own comfort and their perceived peers'comfort in engaging in a variety of sexual behaviors while hooking up. We hypothesized and found that both women and men rated their peers as being more comfortable engaging in these behaviors than they rated themselves. Men expressed more comfort than did women in engaging in these behaviors, and both sexes overestimated the other gender's comfort with hooking up behaviors. Pluralistic ignorance appears to apply to hooking up on college campuses, and we explore some potential consequences of pluralistic ignorance in this context.