Expectations,education, and opportunity

Using a long panel of youths, we establish a causal link between parental expectations regarding education and educational attainment. In particular, we use an instrumental variables approach to find that the child’s chances of obtaining a high school or college degree are increasing in the parent’s expectations of the likelihood of these events. We then use differences between the objective likelihood of a child’s educational attainment and the parents’ subjective probabilities to consider the hypothesis that lower educational outcomes among certain groups are driven by a “culture of despair,” where children are low-achieving because they are expected to underachieve. While we do find that children from households with lower levels of income, wealth, and parental education are less likely to attain high school and college degrees, we reject the hypothesis that this is driven by low subjective expectations of educational success. Rather, we find that parents from disadvantaged groups have expectations for the educational outcomes of their children that differ more from the statistical likelihood of these outcomes than do parents of children from advantaged households. That is, we find that parents in more disadvantaged households are more optimistic about the educational outcomes of their children than those from more advantaged households.     

The Effect of Expectations on the Transition to Parenthood

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between expectations of first-time parenthood and ease of transition into the role of parent. Respondents voluntarily completed questionnaires during hospital prenatal classes or natural childbirth classes; postnatal questionnaires were mailed to respondents six weeks after the birth of their child. Both the prenatal expectations and the postnatal ease of transition were measured by a 34-item checklist which tapped both positive and negative aspects of parenthood. A hierarchical, stepwise regression procedure was employed in order to examine separately the effects of expectations and control variables.

Prenatal expectations, age and education exhibited significant relationships with ease of transition to the role of parent: prenatal expectations and age were positively related to ease of transition, while education was negatively related. Expectations of an experience appear to be a strong determinant of the perception of that experience. It was suggested that this might be due to the “self-fulfilling prophecy” or to an attitudinal component of anticipatory socialization.     

HIGHER EDUCATION AND CRIMINAL OFFENDING OVER THE LIFE COURSE

Educational attainment and school bonding are established predictors of delinquent behavior. In spite of an abundance of research on the relationship between education and delinquency, there is little research that examines the impact of education on stability and change in criminal offending over the life course. This dearth of research is surprising given the increasing significance of post-secondary education in contemporary society and the prominence of the life course approach in the study of crime. The current study uses seven waves of data from the National Youth Survey to examine the impact of higher education on criminal offending over the life course. Findings indicate that college attendance and investment in higher education are negatively associated with criminal offending in adulthood. In addition, the protective effect of higher education is stronger for individuals who were more delinquent during adolescence. Study limitations and future research needs are discussed.     

Social Class and Expectations of Rural Adolescents: The Role of Parental Expectations

This study investigated mechanisms involved in the intergenerational transmission of social class, specifically addressing the prediction of career expectations. The results indicated that among rural high school students (N= 200) in Grades 10–12, there was no direct effect of socioeconomic status (SES; as measured by parent education and occupation) on career expectations. However, there was a direct effect of educational expectations on occupational expectations. Building on the importance of educational expectations in the prediction of occupational expectations, the results suggested that perceived parental expectations explain variance in educational expectations. Overall, it seems that the effect of SES on occupational expectations was mediated by educational expectations; therefore, individuals of lower SES who have increased educational expectations are more likely to have occupational expectations similar to those of their higher SES peers. Moreover, increased parental expectations were positively associated with educational expectations among individuals of various SES levels.     

Young Adults' Fertility Expectations and Events: Associations With College Enrollment and Persistence

The analyses described in this article investigated the association between adolescent fertility expectations and college enrollment (N = 7,838). They also explored the potential impact of fertility expectations and events on college persistence among 4‐year (n = 2,605) and 2‐year (n = 1,962) college students. The analysis, which used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 cohort, showed a significant association between expectations for early parenthood and the likelihood of going to a 4‐year college or 2‐year college for both men and women. In addition, the authors found that pregnancies were associated with an increased risk of college dropout for women; however, if all of the estimated effect of pregnancies on the risk of dropout were causal, they would still not be a major factor contributing to educational attainment because fertile pregnancies among college women are so rare.     

College Expectations of Rural Appalachian Youth: An Exploration of Social Cognitive Career Theory Factors

An examination of social cognitive career theory (SCCT; R. W. Lent, S. D. Brown, & G. Hackett, 1994, 2000) factors contributing to the college expectations of high school students (N = 87) in rural Appalachia was conducted. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed support for the role of SCCT variables in predicting expectations to attend college. Specifically, the SCCT variables of perceptions of parental support and self‐efficacy beliefs independently predicted Appalachian youth's expectations to attend college. Results are discussed in relation to SCCT, and implications for counseling and future research are presented.     

Career and Lifestyle Expectations of Rural Eighth-Grade Students: A Second Look

Gender differences in rural eighth-grade students' curricular, career, and lifestyle expectations were examined. Girls expect to take more math classes in high school, select careers that require a college education, and plan to go to college more frequently than do boys. Boys and girls do not differ in their interest in various careers, although girls prefer occupations that involve people, whereas boys prefer occupations that involve things. Girls plan to work for as many years of their lives as do boys; however, girls are more likely to expect to work part-time, whereas boys expect to work full-time. Counseling implications are offered.     

Good kids with ties to “deviant” peers: network strategies used by African American and Latino young men in violent neighborhoods

Adolescence can be a precarious time for young men of color growing in low-income neighborhoods with high rates of violence. For young men in those neighborhoods this may mean developing a suite of coping strategies that help them successfully navigate their neighborhood and school. Those strategies may include developing social ties with neighborhood residents that are engaged in “deviant” behavior. The aim of this paper study is to leverage the concept of resiliency to examine how social ties to the neighborhood-based “deviant” peers operate as protective factors. To answer this question we use qualitative data from African American and Latino boys and young men from neighborhoods in Chicago and Waukegan, IL who are between the ages of 14–25. Themes emerged that highlight short term positive impacts of social ties with “deviant” peers vs long term consequences. Implications for social work practice and future research are discussed.     

Young adults and parental divorce: exploring important issues.

This article discusses the potential impact of parental divorce on the lives of young adult offspring. Parental divorce may upset both social and psychological aspects of the transition to adulthood process. The family roles young adults are expected to assume could be altered by the break-up, as could opportunities for particular young adult pursuits, such as advanced education. Heightened adjustment problems also are likely to result, as divorce produces additional life changes during the highly transitional period of early adulthood. Qualitative data from an exploratory study of 39 college students, ages 18-23, illustrate many of the relevant issues. Suggestions for future research are provided.     

农民工“临时夫妻”越轨行为的发生机制与成因

以默顿的越轨理论为研究视角,从对社会文化目标的期待和实现文化目标制度性手段的缺失两个维度分析,可揭示农民工组成"临时夫妻"越轨行为的发生机制与成因。研究发现,制度化手段的缺失与社会规范的弱化与农民工越轨行为的发生存在显著的相关性。因此,社会应该加强对于农民工的教育和引导,建立更加多元的社会文化目标,并鼓励农民工通过制度化的手段实现社会目标,并达到两者平衡的状态,这对防止农民工发生"临时夫妻"的越轨行为具有重要意义。     

Parenting Expectations: Younger and Older First-Time Parents

The transition to parenthood is a time of great interest to scholars. Because some parents prosper and others falter after the birth of their first child, understanding factors that influence this transition is of critical importance; one reason is the similarity (or lack thereof) between parents' prebirth parenting expectations. The present study examined (1) similarity between and typologies of first-time parents' parenting role expectations for one another, (2) whether older and younger parents differed in their degree of similarity, and (3) whether similarity related to changes in couple relationship quality. Analyses revealed that first-time parents generally were not similar in their views of what either mothers or fathers should be doing as parents. Where differences existed, both fathers and mothers tended to rate their own fulfillment of “nontraditional” roles more highly than did their partners. Younger and older first-time parents did not differ in their degree of (dis)similarity; regardless of age, first-time parents generally demonstrated unmatched parenting role expectations. Finally, differences in expectations at birth were not associated with parents' ratings of changes in relationship quality 6 months later. In much the same way as marriage education programs help premarital couples communicate about potential areas of disagreement, the present findings emphasize the need for similar prenatal programs for first-time parents.     

A Cross‐Cultural Examination of the Disjuncture Between Aspirations and Expectations/Perceived Outcomes: Strain and Academic Deviance in the United States and Japan

Using comparable self‐reported survey data collected among college students in the United States (n = 502) and Japan (n = 441), this study examines a paradox of higher academic deviance among otherwise more conforming Japanese youth while revisiting the debate concerning the disjuncture between aspirations and expectations/perceived outcomes in Agnew's general strain theory (GST). Confirming the paradox, our results indicate that Japanese students are significantly more deviant academically than American students. However, contrary to the expectation of GST, but in support of past empirical studies, the higher academic deviance among the Japanese, as compared to Americans, is explained by their lower aspirations, irrespective of the levels of expectations/perceived outcomes     

Gender Role Expectations of Juveniles*

This paper discusses the development of two five-item Likert scales that classify juveniles' gender role expectations as highly traditional to nontraditional. One is composed of behavioral expectations that juveniles define as traditionally feminine and the other is composed of expectations they define as traditionally masculine. With a sample of junior and senior high school students, correlational and factor analyses of scale items were conducted to assess the validity of the assumptions of bipolarity and unidimensionality common in theoretical conceptualizations of gender roles. The results suggest that feminine and masculine role expectations are not bipolar opposites and do not form a unidimensional continuum.     

Blame It on the Alcohol: The Influence of Alcohol Consumption During Adolescence,the Transition to Adulthood,and Young Adulthood on One-Time Sexual Hookups

Using public-use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (n = 3,733) and the life-span developmental perspective, the current study sought to determine whether global reports of alcohol use, binge drinking, and drunkenness are best represented as indicators of a latent alcohol consumption construct during adolescence, the transition to adulthood, and young adulthood. We also examined the predictive power of alcohol consumption during each developmental period on the total number of one-time sexual hookups reported in young adulthood. A confirmatory factor analysis revealed alcohol use, binge drinking, and drunkenness are consistent indicators of a latent alcohol consumption variable over time, although the mean levels of the indicators were significantly lower during adolescence. Structural equation modeling analyses found alcohol consumption during the transition to adulthood and young adulthood predicted one-time sexual hookups in young adulthood, but alcohol consumption during the transition to adulthood exhibited the strongest association with hooking up. Implications for research, theory, and practice are discussed.     

Broadening the Concept of Expectations in Public Relations

Expectations have been connected to many central concepts of public relations research, yet definitions of what is meant by expectations are lacking. This article aims to broaden the understanding of expectations by taking into account their multidimensional nature, suggesting that there are several explanations to expectations depending on what the expectation is based on. We suggest that, in organizational context, expectations are two-fold assessments of what is considered good or desirable (expectation tone ranging from positive to negative) and the confidence placed in the organization (organization-specific context ranging from high to low confidence). As a result of the conceptual review with theoretical input from areas outside the scope of public relations, the article presents the Expectation Grid, where expectations are acknowledged as continuums of tone and context.     

‘Wasting precious time’: young men with Duchenne muscular dystrophy negotiate the transition to adulthood

Supporting young disabled people at the transition to adulthood has long proved to be a challenging task. Young men with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) have until recently died before they reached adulthood. Now they are living longer but with a corresponding lack of forethought about how they should be supported in adulthood. This study investigated in three regions of England what was happening for young men with DMD and how they were being supported. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 37 young men (aged 15+) with DMD and 58 other family members. The findings suggested that too many young men had finished education and training and were at home during the day without meaningful activity. In part, the complicated nature of shifting expectations across the life-course had made planning for an adult life with DMD very challenging. This could be exacerbated by problematic assumptions and stubborn barriers.     

The Immigrant Advantage in Adolescent Educational Expectations

Previous research has shown uniquely high expectations among children of immigrants. However, existing studies have not focused on why children of immigrants have an expectations advantage over their native‐born counterparts or if this has changed over time. This study shows that an immigrant advantage in graduate school expectations persists among adolescent children of immigrants today. Regression analyses reveal that this advantage is largely explained by higher parental expectations, greater interest in school, and foreign language use in early childhood. We argue that these factors can be conceptualized as forms of cultural capital stemming from unique aspects of the immigrant experience that are common across immigrant families.     

Changes in Parent,Sibling, and Peer Support During the Transition to Young Adulthood

Longitudinal trajectories of parent, sibling, and peer support during the transition to young adulthood were compared among 600 participants (51.1% female) from Asian, European, and Latin American backgrounds. Participants completed questionnaires at 12th grade, 2 and 4 years after high school. Results indicated that parent support increased across this period for participants from European backgrounds but remained stable for participants from Asian and Latin American backgrounds. Peer and sibling support remained relatively stable. Supports had specific implications for self‐esteem and depressive mood. On average, young adults with higher levels of support reported greater expectations to reciprocate support within the family. Together, these findings highlight the changing dynamics of family and friends during the transition to young adulthood.     

Teaching, research, and service: Expectations of assistant professors

In this article, we critically evaluate the expectations of assistant professors as perceived by junior and senior faculty (n=22) across seven disciplines at two universities. Our research shows that there are similarities and differences within Sociology departments, across disciplines, and across the teaching and research schools where we collected our data. In one respect, Sociology is no different than the other departments where we interviewed faculty members—ambiguity abounds in terms of expectations for junior faculty. Scholarship expectations for tenure and promotion to associate professor vary much more greatly across rank, discipline, and institution than do those for teaching or service. Based on our findings, we offer several suggestions for improving the transition to the role of Assistant Professor in Sociology. Our suggestions focus on change within graduate programs, hiring institutions, and Sociology as a discipline. While our results are consistent with prior research in many cases, we note that the generalizability of our findings is limited given the number of interviews conducted and the purposive sampling design utilized. However, we hope that our results will provide additional information that may help others as they prepare to begin their roles as assistant professors.     

Child Development Accounts,parental savings,and parental educational expectations: A path model

Parents' expectations for their children's education, and efforts to foster suitably positive expectations, are worthy of policy attention. Previous research indicates that early saving for a child's postsecondary education can foster and sustain high parental expectations, yet little is known about the operative mechanisms. This study presents analyses from a randomized experiment with Child Development Accounts (CDAs), a policy to encourage early financial investments for education and to shape parents' expectations concerning their young children's educational goals. Our research provides key evidence on whether parental account holding for children's college (a) has a positive impact on parents' expectations for their children's educational attainment and (b) mediates the CDA's effect on their educational expectations at an early stage in their child's development. We employ data from the SEED for Oklahoma Kids (SEED OK) experiment, the first randomized social experiment to test universal and progressive CDAs. We conduct a path analysis and a supplemental analysis with marginal structural models (n = 2160). We find that holding a college-savings account has a significant effect on parents' educational expectations for their children and that whether one holds an account mediates the effect of CDAs on such expectations. Findings suggest that CDAs may promote early parental financial investment and high expectations. Research and policy implications are discussed.