Gambling as an emerging health problem on campus

OBJECTIVE: The authors documented the prevalence of gambling and correlates to health among undergraduates. METHODS: The authors analyzed data from a health-habit questionnaire (gambling questions included) given to students enrolled in a university-required course. RESULTS: Gambling and problems with gambling were more frequent among men than women regardless of venue. Athletes more frequently bet on sports and played games of chance, had gambling debt, and sought help for gambling than did nonathletes. More than 50% of fraternity members gambled and had a higher prevalence of gambling debt than did other men. Several gambling practices were correlated with failure to use seatbelts, driving or riding with someone under the influence, and using drugs (including cigarettes). Twice as many students who had gambling problems reported considering or attempting suicide than did those who did not report gambling problems, and gambling was correlated with depression. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that gambling is correlated with high-risk health behaviors and indicates the need for intervention for college students with gambling problems.     

Gambling Behavior of Student-Athletes and a Student Cohort: What are the Odds?

This study investigated the prevalence of gambling, gambling related NCAA violations, and disordered gambling in student-athletes (n = 736) with a comparison cohort of students (n = 1,071) at four universities. Student-athletes reported similar rates of gambling frequency, use of a bookmaker, and disordered gambling as students. After accounting for demographic differences, student-athletes were less likely to engage in sports wagering than students. Several risk factors for disordered gambling were identified, including being male and reporting at least one parent with a history of gambling problems. These findings suggest that problems associated with gambling are a university-wide issue with student-athletes meriting additional attention because of implications for the integrity of intercollegiate sports. Improved prevention and intervention efforts for collegiate gambling are recommended.     

Student-Athletes and Gambling: An Analysis of Attitudes Towards Risk-Taking

Gambling scandals at Arizona State University, Boston College, and Northwestern University have made gambling prevention a point of emphasis in the NCAA and throughout colleges and universities across the nation. Despite this emphasis, there is minimal research at any level regarding gambling and student-athletes. This research examines attitudinal differences towards risk-taking among student-athletes who gamble on college sports and those who indicate no such gambling activity. Our findings indicate that student-athletes who gambled were more likely to have attitudes supportive of risk taking behavior than their student-athlete peers who did not gamble.     

Predicting Gambling Problems from Gambling Outcome Expectancies in College Student-Athletes

While previous research has suggested the potential importance of gambling outcome expectancies in determining gambling behaviour among adolescents, the predictive ability of gambling outcome expectancies has not yet been clearly delineated for college-aged youth. The current study aims to explore the relationships between gender and outcome expectancies in the prediction of gambling severity among college student-athletes. Data from the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) study assessing gambling behaviours and problems among U.S. college student-athletes were utilized. Complete data was available for 7,517 student-athletes. As expected, male college student-athletes reported more gambling participation as well as greater gambling problems than their female counterparts. Findings showed positive relationships between the outcome expectancies of financial gain, and negative emotional impacts and gambling problems. That is, those who endorsed more items on the outcome expectancy scales for financial gain and negative emotional impacts also tended to endorse more gambling-related problems. Findings also showed a negative relationship between outcome expectancies of fun and enjoyment, and gambling problems over and above the variance accounted for by gender. Those with gambling problems were less likely to have the expectation that gambling would be fun than those without gambling problems. Despite NCAA efforts to curb gambling activity, the results suggest that college student-athletes are at risk for over-involvement in gambling. Therefore, it is important to explore gambling outcome expectancies within this group since the motivations and reasons for gambling might be able to inform treatment initiatives.     

Game On: Past Year Gambling,Gambling-Related Problems,and Fantasy Sports Gambling Among College Athletes and Non-athletes

College students experience higher rates of gambling-related problems than most other population segments, including the general population. Although Division I (D1) athletes often have more at stake than the average student if and when they gamble (e.g., the potential to lose their athletic eligibility), relatively few studies have assessed the gambling behavior of this population and none have specifically assessed fantasy sports gambling. We conducted a study to examine gambling behavior (past-year gambling, gambling-related problems, and fantasy sport gambling) among a sample (N = 692) of college students at a private religiously affiliated university in the Southwest US. The sample for our study was unique in that approximately 30 % of the participants were D1 athletes. We compared the gambling behavior among three groups based on the athlete status: D1 athletes, club/intramural/recreational (CIR) athletes, and non-athletes (NAs). Compared to females in our sample, males observed higher rates of past year gambling, fantasy sports participation, fantasy sports gambling, and gambling-related problems. Among males, we found that CIR athletes observed the highest rates of past year gambling and fantasy sports participation and D1 athletes observed higher rates than NAs. We did not find differences in fantasy sport gambling and past year gambling-related problems based on athlete status in males or females.     

Enhancing Appearance and Sports Performance: Are Female Collegiate Athletes Behaving More Like Males?

Objective: The authors investigated behavioral indicators of pathological gambling in a college student sample. Participants and Methods: The authors administered a diagnostic interview for pathological gambling to 159 college students, who also completed a demographic questionnaire, and a self-report measure of psychological distress. Results: Consistent patterns of gambling behavior associated with pathological gambling included gambling more than 1.2 times per month, gambling more than 2.1 hours per month, intending to wager more than 6.1% of monthly income, and wagering more than 10.5% of monthly income. In addition, the combination of psychological distress, gambling frequency, and a history of parental gambling problems was significantly associated with pathological gambling in college students. Conclusions: These findings suggest initial markers of problematic gambling behavior in a college sample that may be used in assessment, prevention, and intervention.     

Gambling Participation,Expenditure and Risk of Harm in Australia, 1997–1998 and 2010–2011

Gambling-related harm results primarily from financial losses. Internationally Australia continues to rank as the largest spending nation per capita on gambling products. This would suggest that Australian gamblers are at disproportionately high risk of harm despite almost two decades of industry scrutiny and regulation, and investment in research, treatment and education programs. However, declines in participation rates, per capita expenditure, household expenditure, national disposable income spent on gambling and problem gambling rates have been cited as evidence that fewer people are gambling, that gamblers are spending less, and that gambling safety in Australia has improved. The current study investigated these propositions using national population and accounts data, and statistics from Australia’s two population-representative gambling surveys conducted in 1997–1998 and 2010–2011. Despite a falling participation rate the study found no real change in the number of people gambling overall, and increasing numbers consuming casino table games, race wagering and sports betting. Further found were increases rather than decreases in average gambler expenditure, overall, and across most products, particularly electronic gaming machines (EGMs). Potentially risky levels of average expenditure were observed in both periods, overall and for race wagering, casino table gaming, and EGMs. Changes in the proportion of income spent on gambling suggest risks declined overall and for race wagering and casino table gaming, but increased for EGMs. Finally, while problem gambling statistics were not comparable between periods, the study found double the number of moderate risk gamblers previously estimated for 2010–2011 amongst the 2 million Australians found to have experienced one or more gambling-related problems. The findings have implications for public health policy and resourcing, and the way in which prevalence and expenditure statistics have been interpreted by researchers, government and industry in Australia and elsewhere.     

Gender,gambling and problem gambling

With data from a 1989 Iowa survey (N=1,011), adult male and female respondents are compared on their problem gambling, its correlates, as well as their gambling behavior. Gambling behavior means its scope, frequency, wagering and leisure time spent at gambling. Women's gambling behavior was lower than that of men, due to their having a narrower scope of gambling behavior, but the genders were not significantly different on frequency, wagering and time spent at gambling. Women and men did not differ significantly on problem gambling. Problem gambling is measured as loss of control over gambling, and consequences due to gambling as well as gambling behavior. Women and men did differ significantly, however, on several predictors of problem gambling. Women's estrangement from a conventional lifestyle and integration into a social world of gambling appeared to help explain their problem gambling. Alcohol consumption appeared to be a more important predictor for men than women. The genders shared the attitude that the odds can be beat as well as being big spenders as predictors of their problem gambling. The results are interpreted with practitioners' efforts to prevent and treat problem gambling in mind.This research was partially supported by the Iowa Department of Human Services and the Na tional Institute of Mental Health (1 RJ01 MH50369-01A1). The authors are grateful to anonymous re viewers and the editor of this journal for many helpful suggestions.     

Gambling participation in the U.S.--results from a national survey

Demographic patterns of gambling participation in the U.S. were examined. A national telephone survey was conducted with 2,630 representative U.S. residents aged 18 or older. The sample as weighted for analysis was 48% male, 12% black, and 11% Hispanic. Respondents were questioned on 15 types of gambling: how often they played and how much they won or lost. Eighty-two percent gambled in the past year. Lottery was the most commonly played game, while casino gambling accounted for the largest extent of gambling involvement. Men and women were equally likely to gamble in the past year, but men gambled more frequently and had larger wins and losses, particularly on sports betting and games of skill. Blacks were less likely to have gambled in the past year, but blacks who gambled did so more heavily than other racial groups. Blacks and Hispanics were more likely than average to be pathological gamblers. The rate of past year gambling declined with age, but extent of gambling involvement among gamblers did not vary with age. Rates of participation in most forms of gambling increased with socioeconomic status, but higher socioeconomic status gamblers had lower rates of pathological gambling, and lower extent of gambling involvement, particularly for lottery. New Englanders gambled more heavily than other Americans. Comparison with past studies showed an increase in overall gambling participation in the U.S., and large increases in rates of participation in lottery and casino gambling.     

Conformity to masculine norms among treatment-seeking male problem gamblers

Men are more likely than women to engage in so-called ‘strategic’ forms of gambling, particularly wagering and casino table games, but the reasons for this preference are unclear. Previous research on male gender roles found that behaviours that are effective at establishing masculinity are those perceived as being risky, skill-based and public – which are also characteristic of these ‘strategic’ forms of gambling. The aim of the current study was to examine the possibility that men may be drawn to wagering and casino table games because these strategic forms of gambling are associated with masculinity. Seventy male treatment-seeking problem gamblers completed a survey on their perceptions of various forms of gambling, and a measure of conformity to masculine norms. Participants reported that being seen as skilled and intelligent, and acting in public were important motivators for both wagering and playing casino table games. Furthermore, individuals who engaged in wagering and casino table games displayed higher levels of conformity to masculine norms than those who preferred gambling on gaming machines. The findings have important implications for the regulation of gambling promotion, the encouragement of help-seeking, and the treatment of gambling disorders in men.     

Gambling and other risk behaviors on university campuses

To examine the prevalence of problem gambling and its relationship to other risk-taking behaviors, the authors surveyed 1,350 undergraduates at the 4 campuses of Connecticut State University (CSU) during fall 2000. On the basis of a modified version of the South Oaks Gambling Screen, a widely used screening instrument, they found that 18% of the men and 4% of the women reported that gambling had led to at least 3 negative life consequences (eg, felt guilty, gambled more than intended), commonly defined as problem gambling. Students identified as problem gamblers, compared with other students, were significantly more likely to be heavy drinkers, report negative consequences of alcohol consumption, and be regular tobacco and marijuana users. Problem gambling was related to binge eating and greater use of weight-control efforts. University athletes were also found to have significantly greater problem gambling rates than nonathletes. The majority of students gambled but experienced few of the negative consequences reported by problem gamblers.     

Correlates of college student gambling in the United States

The authors report findings from the first national survey of gambling among college students. They collected information from 10,765 students attending 119 scientifically selected colleges included in the 2001 Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study (CAS), which indicated that 42% of responding students gambled in the last school year and 2.6% gambled weekly or more frequently. These findings contradict the widely held opinion based on previous studies that gambling is prevalent among college students. Previous studies used convenience samples that might have overestimated the risk for gambling problems. Male students and students of legal age (> or = 21 y) were more likely than others to gamble. Availability of gambling, measured by the number of types of gambling venues located in the schools' states, influenced their decisions to gamble. The concordance of characteristics associated with both gambling and binge drinking suggested a disposition to take risks that is independent of the risk objects.     

Gambling among primary school students

This study identifies the gambling behavior of 1,320 primary school students aged 8 to 12 of the 4th, 5th and 6th grades. Eighty-six percent admitted to having, at some time or another, bet money. Lotteries are the most popular form of gambling for this age group. Sixty-one percent of these students gamble with lotteries. In descending order of popularity, other games played by students were: bingo, card-playing for money, bets on sports, wagering on specific events, video gambling (video poker and slot machines), and finally betting on games of skill. Gambling behaviors differed according to gender. More than 40% of respondents reported gambling once a week or more for at least one game. Because of the early development of gambling behavior in children, prevention programs for pathological gambling should be implemented as early as the fourth grade.This research was supported by a grant from the Fonds Richelieu.     

Substance use among college athletes: a comparison based on sport/team affiliation

OBJECTIVE: Prior research shows that college athletes have higher rates of substance use, especially alcohol, than do college students who are not involved in athletics. To augment the literature, the author sought to determine which sports/teams are at the greatest risk for substance use. PARTICIPANTS: The author used data from the 1999 Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study, a national survey of college and university students in the United States. METHODS: A series of chi-square and logistic regression models examined variation in substance use among college athletes on the basis of sport/team affiliation. RESULTS: Findings indicated that male hockey and female soccer athletes were the most likely to report substance use and that male basketball and cross-country/track athletes reported lower levels of substance use. CONCLUSION: There is variation in substance use on the basis of sport/team affiliation, and future researchers should examine why certain groups of athletes have higher rates of substance use.     

High-risk drinking characteristics in collegiate athletes

OBJECTIVE: The authors aimed to further describe the relationship of alcohol use by college athletes to variables, such as sport participation, time of year, and level of competition. PARTICIPANTS: There were 720 participants from Divisions I, II, and III who participated in either a team sport or an individual sport. METHODS: The authors measured characteristics of alcohol use by college athletes at 9 colleges and universities. RESULTS: Participants reported a high rate of consuming 5 or more drinks per occasion in the past 2 weeks. There were greater percentages of team sport athletes reporting this behavior than athletes of individual sports, and there were significant differences according to level of competition. CONCLUSIONS: The college athletes in this study reported high-risk alcohol use at percentages much higher than previously reported. The findings and practical application of the results are discussed.     

Social Connectedness,Self-Esteem,and Depression Symptomatology Among Collegiate Athletes Versus Nonathletes

Objective: The authors compared collegiate athletes and nonathletes to see whether there were significant differences in the perceived levels of social connectedness, self-esteem, and depression and if an interaction among the variables of athlete status, gender, GPA, BMI, and levels of weekly exercise and sleep were associated with depression symptomatology. Participants: Participants were 227 college students. Method: The authors surveyed students using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Social Connectedness Scale-Revised. Results: Athletes had significantly greater levels of self-esteem and social connectedness, as well as significantly lower levels of depression, than did nonathletes. However, the statistically strongest predictors of depression in this cohort were the variables of gender, self-esteem, social connectedness, and sleep. Conclusion: This study adds to the limited and inconsistent research in the empirical knowledge base regarding depression among collegiate athletes.     

The college student-athlete: psychological considerations and interventions

This article reviews the literature dealing with problems brought by student-athletes to college counseling and mental health centers. Among the issues discussed are fear of success; identity conflict; social isolation; poor athletic performance; academic problems; and career or vocational concerns. In addition, the authors examine the paradox that although athletes experience as much or more psychological distress as nonathletes, research indicates that athletes use professional services less often than nonathletes. Finally, the authors review approaches to psychological intervention, including short-term psychotherapy, very brief interventions, cognitive behavioral therapy, and career/vocational counseling, and discuss special considerations for conducting therapy with athletes.     

Gambling Involvement and Increased Risk of Gambling Problems

The opportunity to gamble has undergone rapid expansion with technology allowing for access to gambling products 24 h a day. This increased online availability challenges governments’ abilities to restrict access to gambling. Indeed, the ready access to multiple forms of gambling may potentially contribute to impaired control over urges for problem gamblers. The present study considered whether problem gamblers manifested a tendency to engage in multiple forms of gambling and identified forms of gambling which were more strongly related to problem gambling. In reanalyses of two surveys (Sample 1, N = 464, Sample 2, N = 1141), significant relationships accounting for between 11.3 and 13.5 % of the variance were found between the numbers of forms of gambling accessed and degree of problem. Participation in online poker, playing cards and sports wagering were linked to problem gambling. Access to multiple forms of gambling may pose difficulties for the tracking and control of gambling.     

Alcohol use and participation in organized recreational sports among university undergraduates

OBJECTIVE: The authors examined alcohol use among students involved in recreational sports. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first study of alcohol use in which researchers separate recreational sports participants from intercollegiate athletes and examine them as a separate group of interest. PARTICIPANTS: The authors generated a random sample of 494 students from the undergraduate population at a 4-year university. METHODS: They used a Web-based survey to collect data and stratified and weighted the sample by residence status to more accurately reflect the population. RESULTS: Students who participated in recreational sports used alcohol at a greater frequency and intensity than did those who were not involved in recreational sports across a variety of measures, even alongside other variables, including race, sex, and Greek membership. CONCLUSIONS: On the basis of these findings, alcohol consumption among those participating in recreational sports appears to be an area worthy of consideration in future research.     

Social Norms Research in College Health

Abstract

The authors report findings from the first national survey of gambling among college students. They collected information from 10,765 students attending 119 scientifically selected colleges included in the 2001 Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study (CAS), which indicated that 42% of responding students gambled in the last school year and 2.6% gambled weekly or more frequently. These findings contradict the widely held opinion based on previous studies that gambling is prevalent among college students. Previous studies used convenience samples that might have overestimated the risk for gambling problems. Male students and students of legal age (> 21 y) were more likely than others to gamble. Availability of gambling, measured by the number of types of gambling venues located in the schools' states, influenced their decisions to gamble. The concordance of characteristics associated with both gambling and binge drinking suggested a disposition to take risks that is independent of the risk objects.