Hadedas in the hood: Hadeda Ibis activity in suburban neighbourhoods of Pietermaritzburg,KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Urban environments are a combination of green and grey spaces and although many species are unable to live in these transformed areas there are some that can use urban features to benefit their persistence here. The Hadeda Ibis (Bostrychia hagedash) is one such species and this study investigated the urban activities of these birds. Five suburbs of Pietermaritzburg in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa were surveyed for Hadeda Ibis engaged in flying, foraging, perching and calling behaviours. Each suburb differed in the degree of urbanisation and we expected that their morning activity would differ accordingly. A difference in Hadeda Ibis calling, foraging and flying activity between summer and winter was also expected because of seasonal rainfall patterns. Although Hadeda Ibis were more common in suburbia than the city centre in Pietermaritzburg, they occurred throughout. More were observed calling in summer than in winter probably because of changes in distribution during the breeding season with more family groups of two or three individuals. There was no significant difference in Hadeda Ibis flock size when comparing foraging during summer with winter despite greater summer rainfall. Also there was no significant difference in flock size with flying activity for both seasons nor suburb although it was expected that Hadeda Ibis would need to travel further during winter and from suburbs with more grey space to access ideal foraging areas. Hadeda Ibis need moist soil to forage effectively and in an urban environment short grassed, well watered lawns provided an ideal foraging habitat regardless of season. Hadeda Ibis used urban structures like house roofs, poles, pylons, and fences for perching but continued to roost in trees so while they are able to use urban features, they still rely on a certain degree of green space for urban persistence.     

Nest selection by red-headed woodpeckers across three spatial scales in an urban environment

Forest habitat is important for a variety of woodpecker species, and is under pressure from urbanization. Red-headed Woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus; RHWO) were once abundant across Eastern North America, and their populations have been declining since the 1960s. Their distribution encompasses urban centers, and since urban habitats differ from natural forest areas, our goal was to understand RHWO nest-site selection in an urban context. We addressed two main questions 1) what are the characteristics of RHWO nest selection across multiple spatial scales and 2) how do RHWO nest tree characteristics in city parks compare to those in forest preserves? This work was done in Cook County, IL, which includes Chicago, the third-largest city in the USA by population. We examined 34 RHWO nest trees used between 2010 and 2013, their surrounding habitat, and the landscape within a 1 km radius. Used trees and habitats were compared to paired unused trees and habitats, and landscape-scale characteristics were compared to random locations. Advanced decay of the nest tree, low canopy cover and increased presence of fungus on trees in the surrounding habitat were the best predictors of RHWO nesting in the area. Nests were most commonly found in forested areas outside of dense urban areas. However, we did not detect significant differences in the characteristics of the nest trees located in forest preserves and city parks. Our findings are consistent with nest selection studies in rural and natural areas, suggesting that forest habitats in metropolitan landscapes can support RHWO nesting.     

Nest design in a changing world: Great tit <Emphasis Type="Italic">Parus major</Emphasis> nests from a Mediterranean city environment as a case study

Investigations of urbanization effects on birds have focused mainly on breeding traits expressed after the nest-building stage (e.g. first-egg date, clutch size, breeding success, and offspring characteristics). Urban studies largely ignored how and why the aspects of nest building might be associated with the degree of urbanization. As urban environments are expected to present novel environmental changes relative to rural environments, it is important to evaluate how nest-building behavior is impacted by vegetation modifications associated with urbanization. To examine nest design in a Mediterranean city environment, we allowed urban great tits (Parus major) to breed in nest boxes in areas that differed in local vegetation cover. We found that different measures of nest size or mass were not associated with vegetation cover. In particular, nests located adjacent to streets with lower vegetation cover were not smaller or lighter than nests in parks with higher vegetation cover. Nests adjacent to streets contained more pine needles than nests in parks. In addition, in nests adjacent to streets, nests from boxes attached to pine trees contained more pine needles than nests from boxes attached to other trees. We suggest that urban-related alterations in vegetation cover do not directly impose physical limits on nest size in species that are opportunistic in the selection of nesting material. However, nest composition as reflected in the use of pine needles was clearly affected by habitat type and the planted tree species present, which implies that rapid habitat change impacts nest composition. We do not exclude that urbanization might impact other aspects of nest building behaviour not covered in our study (e.g. costs of searching for nest material), and that the strengths of the associations between urbanization and nest structures might differ among study populations or species.     

Nesting and foraging behavior of red-winged blackbirds in stormwater wetlands

Stormwater wetlands are a common part of urban and suburban landscapes. These constructed wetlands provide first-order treatment of effluent from roads, parking lots, lawns and other surfaces. They also provide habitat for wetland-associated birds. Thus, there is a concern that birds may be attracted to potentially toxic habitats. This study assesses nesting success and forging behavior of Red-winged Blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) in retention stormwater wetlands based on drainage type. Drainage categories included residential, commercial, and highway sites. Commercial sites had the lowest nesting success and the lowest diversity of invertebrate foods. Mean nest success values for all three types of wetlands, especially for highway drainages, were comparable to published values from natural wetlands. Over two years of study highway ponds collectively served as source populations whereas residential and commercial sites were population sinks in one year and sources in the other. Red-wings using highway sites had the highest foraging efficiency as determined by the frequency and duration of forays. Residential sites had the greatest human disturbance and generally had intermediate-quality habitat and nesting success. We conclude that while stormwater wetlands collect run off and accompanying pollutants, they can still be valuable habitats for nesting birds in urban and suburban areas. We recommend a few management strategies that can increase avian use of these habitats.     

Exotic monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus) in New Jersey: nest site selection, rebuilding following removal, and their urban wildlife appeal

Understanding how birds exist in highly urban cities is important to maintaining biodiversity within these environments, and exotic species pose a unique opportunity to examine adaptation. The non-native monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) nests mainly in cities in the United States, and in some places, is considered a nuisance by utility companies. Monk parakeets nest communally (many nests in one nest structure) and colonially (many nest structures in one area). We studied monk parakeets in urban New Jersey to determine where they nested, if nest sites were similar among parakeets nesting in trees and utility poles, and if they rebuilt following removal. Of the 51 nest structures we studied, 37% were on utility poles, 8% were on a man-made gazebo, and the rest were in trees. Nest structures located on poles were located closer to the ground, had fewer nest holes, and the distance to nearest tree was greater than for tree nest structures. The pole nest structures were closer to the top of the “canopy” or structure, and were always located on or around the pole rather than out on one of the cross beams. The nest structures were similar in size and shape whether they were located on poles, other man-made objects, or in trees. Thus monk parakeets built similar nest structures, and located them about the same distance from the ground and from houses whether they were in utility poles or in trees, leading to the conclusion that poles provide suitable sites for them. The parakeets persisted in nesting on the utility poles and another man-made gazebo despite being removed over several years, and despite the presence of other nearby unused trees. After parakeet nest structures were removed from poles by the utility company, most birds began rebuilding within the day. The persistence, despite persecution, of the monk parakeet on poles, and the fact that poles provide attractive and secure support for nest structures, suggest that they will continue to do so. Managers must either learn to live with the parakeets, redesign the utility pole structure to be less appealing to the birds, provide them with alternative nest sites on the utility poles or nearby, or continue to forcibly remove them. Local support for the parakeets, and their potential to serve as urban icons, have resulted in New Jersey’s utility company working with local enthusiasts and scientists to ensure the birds are not harmed during nest removal.     

Nesting ecology of mourning doves in an urban landscape

The expansion of urban areas into native habitat can have profound effects on avian populations and communities, yet little is known regarding the effects of urban features on avian reproductive success. The objective of this study was to examine the reproduction of an urban-enhanced species, the mourning dove, to determine how tree and urban landscape features affect nest-site selection and nest success. Mourning dove nests were located by systematically searching potential nest sites on a weekly basis from late-March through mid-September in 2003 and 2004. A total of 1,288 mourning dove nests were located and monitored on the Texas A&M University Campus. Of these nests, 337 (26.6%) were successful (fledged, ≥1). An equal number of potential nest sites were randomly generated in ArcGIS and assigned to non-nest trees to evaluate habitat variables associated with nest-site selection. Mourning dove nests were located in trees with a larger canopy diameter and diameter at breast height (DBH) than the computer generated potential nests and nest trees were located closer to roads and farther from buildings than non-nest trees. Within the study area, nest success was predominately influenced by the proximity of urban features with successful nests being located closer to roads and farther from buildings than unsuccessful nests.     

Homestead greening is widespread amongst the urban poor in three medium-sized South African towns

Trees in urban areas are important sources of ecosystem services and benefits. In most towns the bulk of urban biodiversity, and trees specifically, are found in homestead gardens. But there is only limited understanding of the tree holdings in such gardens, and how they vary within and between towns, especially for developing countries where rapid urbanisation and high poverty influence the use of and reliance on land and local resources. We report on the nature of tree holdings in private gardens of poorer suburbs in three medium-sized towns along a gradient of decreasing mean annual rainfall in northern South Africa. A total of 3 217 trees were enumerated across 450 randomly selected homesteads. Most (90 %) households had at least one tree on their homestead, with an average of 7.7?±?6.1 trees. Most householders had planted the trees themselves. The density of trees declined along the moisture gradient. Within towns, tree density was positively related to garden size, which in turn was related to relative affluence and age of the suburb. Newer and poorer suburbs had the fewest trees per household. Sixty-two tree species were recorded, which were dominated by alien species, especially fruit trees. There was no relationship between the moisture gradient and tree species richness per household, but within towns there was a difference between suburbs, being lowest in the newest suburbs. Numbers of trees and species per household was positively related to age of the household head.     

Local and landscape drivers of bird abundance,species richness,and trait composition in urban agroecosystems

Urban Ecosystems - Urban gardens, or spaces that include vegetables, fruit trees, and ornamental plants, can support bird species and communities by providing food and nesting habitat within urban...     

Aspects of the ecology and behaviour of a potential urban exploiter,the southern tree agama,Acanthocercus atricollis

Urbanisation has caused significant alterations to ecosystems, generally resulting in decreased biodiversity. However, certain animal species persist and thrive in urban environments by making use of available opportunities, anthropogenic resources, infrastructure and increased ambient and surface temperatures. These species are known as urban exploiters. We investigated the southern tree agama, Acanthocercus atricollis population trends, habitat use and basking and shading behaviour in a high-density urban human-populated housing metropolitan area in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We marked individual southern tree agamas to determine habitat use and territories (n?=?37). The southern tree agama population density was high, and they had established set territories here. We conducted monthly observations (February 2017–July 2017 and March 2018–February 2019) to determine the degree of basking and shading behaviour with season and time of day and location. Southern tree agamas invested more than half of their time (57%) in basking behaviour during the overall observational study period. Basking and shading patterns changed with season and time of day. The number of basking southern tree agamas decreased during winter and basking commenced later. We found that increased anthropogenic infrastructure and supplementary food availability, decreased predators, and basking opportunities could have had an influence on their population increase and that the southern tree agama is a potential urban exploiter.

     

Water sources of urban trees in the Los Angeles metropolitan area

In semi-arid cities, urban trees are often irrigated, but may also utilize natural water sources such as groundwater. Consequently, the sources of water for urban tree transpiration may be uncertain, complicating efforts to efficiently manage water resources. We used a novel approach based on stable isotopes to determine tree water sources in the Los Angeles basin, where we hypothesized that trees would rely on irrigation water in the soil rather than develop deep roots to tap into groundwater. We evaluated the oxygen (δ¹⁸O) and hydrogen (δD) isotope ratios of xylem water, irrigation water, soil water, and groundwater in a study of temporal patterns in water sources at two urban sites, and a study of spatial patterns at nine urban sites and one “natural” riparian forest. Contrary to our hypothesis, we found that despite frequent irrigation, some trees tap into groundwater, although in most species this was a small water source. Some trees appeared to be using very shallow soil water at <30 cm depth, suggesting that these mature urban trees were quite shallowly rooted. In the natural site, trees appeared to be using urban runoff in addition to shallow soil water. We were able to identify tree uptake of precipitation at only 3 sites. The results show that some irrigated trees utilize groundwater and do not rely solely on irrigation water, which may make them able to withstand drought and/or water conservation measures. However, some irrigated trees may develop very shallow root systems, which may make them more susceptible.     

Urban environments are associated with earlier clutches and faster nestling feather growth compared to natural habitats

Urbanization creates new habitats with novel benefits and challenges not found in natural systems. How a species fares in urban habitats is largely dependent on its life history, yet predicting the response of individual species to urbanization remains a challenge. While some species thrive in urban areas, others do poorly or are not present at all. Mountain chickadees (Poecile gambeli) are year-round residents of montane regions of western North America. Commonly found in higher-elevation coniferous forests, these birds can also be found in urban areas where they will regularly visit bird feeders and nest in nest boxes. We monitored mountain chickadees nesting along a habitat gradient, from natural habitat to suburban areas, to determine if the degree of urbanization was associated with: clutch size and success; nestling growth rates; or variation in parental size and age. Females nesting in urbanized areas initiated clutches earlier in the breeding season than those in natural areas, but neither fledging success nor the rate of nestling mass-change differed between habitats. Nestling feather growth-rate increased with later first egg dates in both habitats, and the magnitude of this increase was greatest in urban habitats. We found no difference in the proportion of first-time breeders versus experienced breeders between habitat types, nor any differences in male or female mass or size. Our results indicate no detriment to nesting in urban habitats, suggesting mountain chickadees are able to adapt to moderate urbanization much like other members of the Paridae family.     

Raptor nesting locations along an urban density gradient in the Great Basin,USA

Raptors are the most prevalent group of urban apex predators, and the majority of raptor genera in North America have been recorded using urban areas. Prior research assessments along urban-wildland gradients show that urban habitat preference varies by raptor species and that raptor nesting preferences within urban settings may vary. Attempts to understand the intra- and inter-specific nesting patterns along an urban gradient would advance extant knowledge. Here we present the locations of individual nest sites of nine raptor species along an urban gradient in Reno-Sparks, NV. We developed an urban density model based on the number of residents, number of employees, and building footprints and number of floors for built structures within each land parcel at four spatial scales, representing nest site, macrohabitat, average nearest-nest, and landscape scales. Cooper’s Hawks (Accipiter cooperii), Sharp-shinned Hawks (Accipiter striatus), and Red-tailed Hawks (Buteo jamaicensis) nested across the widest range of the urban spectrum and closest to the urban core, whereas Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and Swainson’s Hawks (Buteo swainsonii) nested on the urban fringe. Urban density for all nest locations was lowest at the nest-site scale, and the highest at the average nearest-nest and landscape scales. Raptors tended to occupy a wide range of the building-area density spectrum but not the building-height or employee density spectrums indicative of the attractiveness of suburban habitat.

     

Improving confidence in tree species selection for challenging urban sites: a role for leaf turgor loss

High species diversity is argued to be the most important requisite for a resilient urban forest. In spite of this, there are many cities in the northern hemisphere that have very limited species diversity within their tree population. Consequently, there is an immense risk to urban canopy cover, if these over-used species succumb to serious pests or pathogens. Recognition of this should motivate the use of less commonly used species. Analysis of plant traits, such as the leaf water potential at turgor loss (Ψ_P0), can provide useful insights into a species’ capacity to grow in warm and dry urban environments. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate Ψ_P0 of 45 tree species, the majority of which are rare in urban environments. To help evaluate the potential for using Ψ_P0 data to support future decision-making, a survey of professionals engaged with establishing trees in urban environments was also used to assess the relationship between the measured Ψ_P0 and the perceived drought tolerance of selected species. This study demonstrates that Ψ_P0 gives strong evidence for a species’ capacity to tolerate dry growing conditions and is a trait that varies substantially across species. Furthermore, Ψ_P0 was shown to closely relate to the experience of professionals involved in establishing trees in urban environments, thus providing evidence of its practical significance. Use of plant traits, such as Ψ_P0, should, therefore, give those specifying trees confidence to recommend non-traditional species for challenging urban environments.     

Breeding performance of an apex predator,the peregrine falcon,across urban and rural landscapes

Urban environments present wildlife with major challenges and yet surprising numbers of species have colonised towns and cities globally. Despite the growing realisation that urban centres can be important habitats for wildlife, why some species do better than others in urban environments remains poorly understood. Here, we compare the breeding performance of an apex predator, the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), in urban and rural environments, and test whether variation in reproductive success between and within environments is driven by prey. Historical breeding data were collected from raptor study groups across Great Britain between 2006 and 2016, from 22 urban and 58 rural nest sites, involving 101 and 326 nesting attempts, respectively. Prey density, biomass and diversity around the individual nests was estimated using modelled estimates from a national bird census. Urban peregrines produced more fledglings and had a higher overall nesting success (i.e. whether a nesting attempt was successful or unsuccessful) than rural peregrines. Prey density and biomass were significantly higher, and diversity significantly lower, in the urban sites, and explained the variation in reproductive success within both the urban and rural environments. Therefore, urban environments in Great Britain appear to provide peregrine falcons with superior habitats in terms of prey availability compared to rural habitats. We conclude that some apex predators can benefit from urban environments and that urban planning has the potential to benefit biodiversity across many trophic levels.

     

Exotic trees can sustain native birds in urban woodlands

Native landscaping has been proposed as a means of increasing native bird diversity and abundance in urban landscapes. However residents’ preferences for vegetation are such that exotic plants are often preferred over natives. We investigated the extent to which native birds foraged in three common native and three exotic tree species in mixed urban woodland during four seasons. We predicted that native birds would spend more time foraging in native trees, and that food resources provided by deciduous exotic trees would be more seasonal than those provided by non-deciduous natives. Native birds spent a lot of time foraging in two of the native tree species, but very little time in native red beech (Nothofagus fusca). They used exotic oak (Quercus robur) throughout the year, and sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) seasonally. Oak and European beech (Fagus sylvatica) were used by the largest number of species overall, because they attracted both native and exotic birds. With the exception of tree fuchsia (Fuschia excorticata), which produces large volumes of nectar followed by fruits, all tree species were sources of invertebrates for insectivorous feeding. Seasonality of use was high only in sycamore, indicating limited support for our second prediction. We show that being native doesn’t necessarily entail being a good food source for native birds, and popular landscaping exotic species, such as oak, provide foraging opportunities across all seasons.     

A snapshot analysis of age distributions of fishes in urban and forested Virginia streams

An understanding of the spatial variation in the population structure of lotic fishes is vital to their conservation. Population level approaches may be more suitable than community level approaches for identifying stream fish response to urbanization. Lithophilic (clean mineral substrate) spawners are disproportionally affected by common habitat disturbances, and are thus expected to exhibit great demographic variation along gradients of disturbance. We related age distributions of six stream fishes, exhibiting four different types of lithophily (speleophily, saucer-pit nesting, gravel mound nesting, and simple broadcasting/nest association), to land cover and instream habitat variables. Fishes were collected from 18 urban or forested reaches of three 2nd-4th Strahler-order tributaries of the New River, Virginia. Individuals were assigned to age classes based on length-frequency histograms verified by sagittal otolith analysis. Chi-square tests and multiple polytomous logistic regression were used to relate population structure to land cover types and associated instream habitat variables. Age distributions of broadcast lithophils were unbalanced (containing relatively higher proportions of adults than juveniles) in urban reaches, whereas those of nest-constructing spawners were always balanced. Mixed responses were observed between the two speleophils. Differences in the directional effect of urbanization on population structure may be attributable to species?? tendency to: a) modify available substrate, b) to provide parental care to their brood, and c) life-history traits other than spawning mode (e.g. age at maturation). Although nest association may confer greater reproductive success to participants, this activity was not beneficial enough to give associates balanced age distributions in urban reaches. These results suggest that source-sink dynamics may operate to prevent populations of various fishes in urban reaches from being extirpated. Future research should focus on differences in population dynamics of stream fishes among land cover types.     

Patterns in macroinvertebrate taxonomic richness and community assembly among urban wetlands in Cape Town,South Africa: implications for wetland management

Urbanization has significantly increased globally during the last century and has far-reaching consequences for biodiversity and their associated habitats, particularly wetland ecosystems. Previous studies have focused primarily on wetlands in non-urban areas, and urban wetland biodiversity patterns are currently not well understood, particularly across Africa. Here, we investigate two highly transformed urban wetlands in Cape Town, South Africa, and determine the relative importance and influence of local environmental variables as drivers of macroinvertebrate richness and community structuring. We also determine the influence of local environmental variables for patterns of species turnover and nestedness within and among these wetlands, and provide management recommendations based on our findings. We found that few macroinvertebrate species were associated with these wetlands, yet community variation was driven by a combination of local environmental variables. Our results also indicate that the turnover component of beta diversity, rather than nestedness, was responsible for most of the variation in the overall macroinvertebrate community. We identified two major problems regarding the current ecological state of the investigated wetlands. Firstly, high nutrient loads originating from the surrounding land uses which reduced wetland biodiversity, and secondly, the transformation of these wetlands from seasonal to perennial water bodies. We recommend local and regional scale approaches to limit urban waste from entering these systems, and management of water levels simulating natural Mediterranean-type climate dynamics more closely are required to ensure that the maximum possible diversity can be supported in these wetlands.

     

Bad neighbors: urban habitats increase cankerworm damage to non-host understory plants

Plants growing in vegetationally diverse habitats or near taxonomically distinct neighbors often experience less herbivory than plants in more simple habitats. When plants experience more herbivory in these situations it is called associational susceptibility and is most common when herbivores spill from their preferred plant host onto neighboring plants. Cankerworms are common pests of urban trees that have been shown in forests to disperse from preferred to less preferred hosts. I found that two common characteristics of urban habitats, low vegetational diversity and exotic plants, affect cankerworm herbivory of non-host understory plants. In an urban landscape I measured cankerworm herbivory on native dogwood trees growing in the open and below cankerworm host and non-host trees. Herbivory of native dogwoods was ten times greater below cankerworm hosts than on trees below non-hosts or in the open. At an arboretum I measured herbivory of native and exotic plants growing below cankerworm hosts in simple landscape plantings and in natural forests. Associational susceptibility of native dogwoods and Rhododendron spp. disappeared when they were growing in complex natural forests even though cankerworm hosts were more abundant. Cankerworms consistently preferred native plant species more than exotic congeners in laboratory experiments. As such, exotic plants experienced very little herbivory regardless of habitat. Herbivorous pests are often more abundant on urban plants than plants in natural habitats. My research shows that, although some plants experience more herbivory when growing near cankerworm hosts, increasing urban habitat complexity could reduce pest damage overall.     

Vegetation composition and structure of woody plant communities along urban interstate corridors in Louisville,KY, U.S.A.

Urban forests adjacent to interstate corridors are understudied ecosystems across cities. Despite their small area, these forests may be strategically located to provide large ecosystem services due to their ability to act as a barrier against air pollutants and noise as well as to provide flood control. The woody vegetation composition and structure of forests adjacent to urban interstates is an important determinant of their ability to provide these services. However, these forest communities may be particularly susceptible to the introduction of exotic invasive species via the interstate and the surrounding city that can potentially alter current and future forest composition. The purpose of this study was to investigate the distribution of native and exotic woody vegetation and tree regeneration in forests along three interstate corridors in Louisville, KY, and to determine potential factors (e.g., traffic density) that are correlated with patterns in the woody vegetation community. We found the most important determinants of vegetation composition along these interstate corridors were the distance from the city center and the presence of an exotic invasive shrub, Amur honeysuckle (Lonicera maackii). Compared with forested plots within 10 km of the city center, plots further from the city center had 81% lower stem density of Amur honeysuckle, 96% higher tree seedling regeneration, and 51% greater woody plant species richness. The primarily native species composition of adult trees in forests alongside urban interstates in Louisville and the regeneration of native tree species provide optimism that these forests can maintain native species while experiencing multiple impacts from the interstate as well as from the surrounding city, emphasizing their important potential for maintaining natural forest functions across the urban landscape.     

A spatial analysis of indigenous cover patterns and implications for ecological restoration in urban centres,New Zealand

High levels of endemism, the sensitivity of species that have evolved without humans, and the invasion of exotic species have all contributed to severe depletion of indigenous biodiversity in New Zealand. We considered the contribution that urban restoration can make to maximising biodiversity by analysing landcover patterns from two national databases along an urban–rural gradient. Thirteen of 20 land environments in New Zealand are represented in cities, and nearly three-quarters of all acutely threatened land environments are represented within 20 km of city cores nationally. Despite this, remaining indigenous landcover is low within urban cores, with less than 2% on average, but increasing to more than 10% on average in the periurban zone. Threatened lowland environments are most commonly represented within cities, and least represented within protected natural areas. Restoration of existing urban habitat is insufficient to halt biodiversity loss. Ecosystem reconstruction is required to achieve a target of 10% indigenous cover within cities. A co-ordinated national urban biodiversity plan to address issues beyond a local and regional focus is needed. Analysis of national patterns of urban land environments, indigenous cover and remnant ecosystems will support action at a regional and local level while enhancing national and global biodiversity goals.