Gender and Emotion: Beyond Stereotypes

Stereotypes about gender and emotional expression tend to be imprecise and misleading. They fail to acknowledge situational, individual, and cultural variations in males' and females' emotional expressiveness. They also tend to generalize across emotional intensity and frequency, as well as across different modalities of emotional expression, e.g. verbal vs. behavioral modalities. Moreover, they tend to exaggerate the extent of gender differences in emotional expression. I argue that when gender differences in emotional expression do occur, they can be traced to social processes such as dissimilar gender roles, status and power imbalances, and differing socialization histories of males and females. These processes may predispose some males and females to express emotions differently in some cultures and in some contexts. To support this argument, I present data from two studies, one showing that the amount of time fathers spend with their children relates to the gender stereotypic nature of their children's emotional expressiveness; and the other showing that gender differences in emotional expressiveness are culturally specific in a sample of Asian international, Asian‐American, and European-American college students. Finally, I note the potentially destructive limitations imposed by stereotypes on males' and females' interpersonal functioning as well as on their mental and physical health.     

从帝国到数字帝国主义——重读哈特和奈格里的《帝国》

在19年后,我们重新来审视曾经风靡一时的哈特和奈格里的著作《帝国》,会有一种不同的感受。19年后,《帝国》中的一些论点已经过时,但他们的一些论断仍然在今天起着作用。尽管今天的帝国并没有超越民族国家,也没有抵挡住新民粹主义的兴起,但是哈特和奈格里的分析仍然具有内在价值,尤其是他们提出的数字时代的资本主义造成的实质从属。数字技术的进步带来的不是人的解放,也不是世界范围内的国与国之间的差距的缩小,相反,资本对人的奴役、西方国家对第三世界国家的掠夺和盘剥随着数字技术的推进被强化,导致了数字帝国主义的兴起。数字帝国主义正在成为今天世界政治格局的重要形态,在一定意义上,今天的数字帝国主义正是19年前哈特和奈格里的帝国理论的实现。     

A Cross-Cultural Study of Stereotypes of Female Behavior: (in Russia and the United States)

In different cultures, the norms that enable women and men to conduct themselves in a particular way and to play particular roles in the family and society (gender roles) can differ quite widely. When it comes to gender roles that are permitted in a given culture, ideas about them that are formed by representatives of other cultures, countries, and ethnoses are called gender stereotypes. In order to indicate that what is referred to is how gender roles are perceived by representatives of the same culture (which is to say, about themselves), the term that is used is gender autostereotypes.     

Mediterranean Back and Other Stereotypes: A Review of the Australian Literature Dealing with Industrial Back Injuries

This paper analyses the attitudes to migrants evident in much of the Australian literature dealing with industrial back injuries. Both medical and lay writers believe that migrants, especially those from Southern Europe, are over-represented among patients complaining of occupationally induced back pain. It is also widely believed that migrants are more prone than Australian born workers to malingering and psychosomatic complications of back injury. However no firm statistical evidence for this viewpoint was discovered. Three small studies which tend to refute it are discussed.     

Allport's Legacy and the Situational Press of Stereotypes

This article focuses on two aspects of Allport's (1954) investigation of the psychology of being a target of prejudice. Whereas most researchers in this area view Allport as an expectancy theorist, we revisit another aspect of Allport's theory: the situational threat posed by negative stereotypes. First, we examine this issue, as it applies to the academic underachievement of negatively stereotyped groups, by contrasting the situational threat posed by stereotypes with traditional and current expectancy-oriented conceptions. Second, we show that stereotypes do not appear to affect self-expectations; instead, they appear to foster a climate of mistrust that results in depressed performance. Finally, we discuss how interventions that ameliorate the climate of mistrust, such as the presence of educators who are competent minority group members, tend to raise levels of performance.     

Attitudes, Stereotypes and Anti-Discriminatory Education: Developing Themes from Sullivan

Correspondence to Richard Pugh NEWI, Plas Coch Campus. Mold Road, Wrexham LL11 2AW, Wales, UK. Summary This paper acknowledges the importance of the issues that Sullivan(1998) raises, but questions assumptions made about the natureof anti-discriminatory practice and is critical of the way inwhich shifts in attitudes are interpreted as evidence of furtherproblematic discrimination. It suggests alternative interpretationsfor Sullivan's examples, and questions the conceptions of attitudesand the model of self presented in Sullivan's account of attitudechange. The paper considers stereotyping as a cognitive processand whether it is an inevitable, or invariable, phenomenon.It reviews the nature and goals of anti-discriminatory education,contending that discrimination arises not from the holding ofstrong attitudes perse, but from the nature of, and the consequencesthat follow from, particular attitudes. Finally, it makes recommendationsfor educators and provides suggestions for further developmentof the anti-discriminatory perspective.     

明代上供物料制度运作与财政白银化的逻辑:以景德镇官窑烧造改革为例

明初景德镇官窑瓷器的烧造是朱元璋在儒家“均平”思想指导下设立的以国家对百姓人身控制为基础的物资征调体制的一部分。然而这套制度反而扩大了不均，并且在现实中运转不畅。为此官员们积极展开改革。在改革中，市场介入下的财政白银化起到了重要作用。它提升了资源的征调效率，同时将差役量化为货币价值，使“均平”可在更大范围内进行调整。然而，财政白银化只是资源征调制度改革的手段之一，而非目的：首先，市场在被引入资源征调的过程中始终处于指令需求之下；其次，市场交换的发达所带来的社会变革始终是在“均平”的观念下展开的。景德镇官窑改革过程反映了传统中国的社会变化是一种建立在长期博弈、妥协与磨合基础上的路径依赖。     

再论清代皇室之乳保

清代皇室乳母、保母属宫廷仆妇群体,是宫廷女性的重要组成部分。从性别视角再研究清代皇室之乳保,详细辨析乳母、保母称谓及职责的不同;阐释了皇室乳保与皇子女之间存在的稳固的亲情关系和伦理关系,以及由此形成的乳保群体在宫廷中身份地位的特殊性。她们充分利用这种特殊身份,突破自身的性别和阶级局限,提升其在家庭中的地位,发展起以女性为核心的家族体系。在为自己家族带来“特权”的同时,乳保群体也对清代皇族的家事和国事产生一定影响。