Did wages reflect growth in productivity?

The level of productivity doubled in the U.S. nonfarm business sector between 1970 and 2006. Wages, or more accurately total compensation per hour, increased at approximately the same annual rate during that period if nominal compensation is adjusted for inflation in the same way as the nominal output measure that is used to calculate productivity. Total employee compensation as a share of national income was 66% of national income in 1970 and 64% in 2006. This measure of the labor compensation share has been remarkably stable since the 1970s. It rose from an average of 62% in the decade of the 1960s to 66% in the decades of the 1970s and 1980s and then declined to 65% in the decade of the 1990s where it has again been from 2000 until the most recent quarter.     

Help for all parents?: Child-rearing advice in English Canada in the 1960s and 1970s

Changes occurring in Canadian society during the 1960s and 1970s were poorly reflected in the child-rearing advice directed to English-Canadian parents. Despite the rise in the number of women working outside the home and feminist calls for a more equitable division of child care, experts only sometimes modified their advice to acknowledge this reality. In addition, the creation of the welfare state seemed to encourage child-rearing advisors to ignore class disparities. Finally, experts in this period rarely acknowledged any racial diversity in the Canadian population, despite an increasingly multicultural society. They continued to presume as the norm a white, Anglo-Saxon, middle-class family in which mothers remained the primary caregivers.     

Handicapped by old and new traps: Hungary's health care reform

Since the early 1980s, grave challenges have faced Hungarian health policy. The health status of the population stagnated between the mid-1960s and mid-1970s, and has dramatically deteriorated since then. In the 1980s the multidimensional crisis of the health care system deepened. Its overhaul must embrace every component: policy-making, ownership, financing, management, service structure, patient rights, medical education, etc. The main purpose of this paper is to describe how health policy has (or has not) responded to these challenges. First it summarizes the inheritance of the state-socialist regime, then it outlines the recent changes in social insurance legislation, and finally it compares official goals with the way the reform is actually proceeding. The paper is intended to discuss the connection between health care reform and the historic transformation of the political regime and the economy.     

Culture,Segregation, and Tolerance in Urban America*

Objective. The objective of this article is to examine whether racial tolerance attitudes are influenced by the character of the urban subculture in which individuals live. Specifically, is there a significant association between Florida's (2002) concept of creative class and racial tolerance among white survey respondents? Methods. The Social Capital Community Benchmark Survey that comprises respondents across some 27 cities provides the data for this analysis. Ordered logit regression was utilized. Results. Independent of key explanations of racial tolerance such as racial threat and contact theories, creative class or new political culture cities are associated with more progressive racial attitudes among white respondents. In addition, important evidence is uncovered that shows creative class operates as an interactive variable, conditioning the effects of traditional determinants of tolerance. Conclusions. Evidence suggests that creative class or new political culture cities should be viewed as constituting distinctive cultural milieus that have important direct and interactive effects on tolerance attitudes.     

From Casework to Community Care: 'The End is Where We Start From' (T. S. Eliot)

Joan Cooper, 2A Gallows Bank, Abinger Place, Lewes, Sussex BN7 ZQA. Summary This paper traces some of the influences which have shaped socialwork in Britain between the 1960s and the 1980s, with particularreference to the casework inheritance and the community dimension.The latter is illustrated by reference to the Home Office CommunityDevelopment Projects of the late sixties and by moves throughoutthe period towards a community care policy in the mental healthfield. It is suggested that community care revives an oldertradition and that the nineteenth century asylum policy wasa diversion.     

TWO WAVES OF CROATIAN MIGRANTS IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA: CLASS AND NATIONAL IDENTITY

This paper examines the ways in which two waves of Croatian migrants in Western Australia have constructed their ethnic/national identity following migration. These two waves – the first took place during the 1960s and the early 1970s and the second in the late 1980s/early 1990s – are considerably different in terms of their socio-economic background. The earlier wave came from rural areas of Croatia and can be described as typically working class, while the recent wave came from the cities and predominantly consists of professional people. Migrants from the 1960s wave express a strong identification with their place (village, town, island) of origin and form a rather close-knit ethnic ‘community of place’. There is a strong link between territory, ethnicity and identity in this group of migrants. Recent developments in Croatia (the war for independence) have helped to ‘enlarge’ this local-ethnic focus into an ‘imagined’ national identity. Ethno-national belonging and identification is not emphasised in the recent group of Croatian migrants. Their ‘Croatianness’ is secondary in the re-construction of their identity following migration. It is their professional identification that seems to be central in this process. They consider the Croatian ‘ethnic community’ to be irrelevant to their life in Australia and seek to integrate into the broader Australian community primarily through their professional work.     

‘MUSIC WHILE YOU WORK’: TEENAGE WOMEN IN THE AUSTRALIAN LABOUR MARKET, 1947 TO 1992

Teenage women have been particularly disadvantaged by the collapse of the youth labour market over the last 20 years. This article outlines the dimension of that problem, comparing the position young women held in the teenage labour market in the late 1940s with their position today. While the 1950s and 1960s saw growth in some areas of paid work for teenage women, the 1970s marked a watershed. With the major exception of saleswork in the retail industry and clerical work in banking, teenage women saw their place in the labour market dramatically shrink during that decade. Nearly 30,000 full-time jobs disappeared during the 1970s, to be replaced by nearly the same number of part-time jobs. The 1980s has seen these developments reach crisis proportions. In the late 1980s, nearly 40,000 clerical jobs were lost to teenage women, and again the only significant employment growth was in casualised service sector jobs, such as cashiers and sales workers. This article concludes by exploring the structural reasons behind these dramatic long-term changes.     

Where have the social sciences come in understanding racial discrimination? An economist’s viewpoint

Following a brief assessment of the postwar literature on discrimination, this essay tracks black economic progress from 1940–2000. During the postwar period, social scientists studying discrimination have focused on three areas- the origins of prejudice, antidiscrimination policy and measuring whether equals are treated unequally. The emphasis in the literature, particularly in economics, has been on the third area. It is well documented that during 1940–80, blacks made significant relative economic progress. The consensus in the literature is that this progress was due to a significant narrowing of the racial educational gap, improved quality of black schools and the migration of blacks to the North. However, little is known about the extent of racial discrimination during this period. The 1980–2000 period is characterized by nearly complete stagnation in black economic progress and social scientists know relatively little about the reasons for the stagnation. The extent of racial discrimination during the later period is virtually unknown. The uncertainty about the post-1980 period can only be resolved through scrutiny of newly emerging data sets.     

Some Dominant Perspectives in the Literature Relating to Multi-Racial Social Work

Summary This article represents an attempt to provide an overall frameworkfor the understanding of the social work literature relatingto racial minorities. It traces the main currents of socialwork thought from the earliest contributions of the late 1960sto the more recent work of the early 1980s. Four main themesare identified in the literature, which are referred to as theanthropological approach, liberal pluralism, cultural pluralismand the structuralist position. The conclusion attempts to tentativelydraw out the relationships between the literature, social workpractice and ultimate race relations goals.     

Seizing the cultural and political moment and catching fish: Political development of Māori in New Zealand, the Sealord Fisheries Settlement, and social movement theory

Why did Māori issues and treaty grievances become politically salient in the 1970s? I argue that contemporary social movement theory, which examines both political opportunities and the use of cultural resources by emerging movements helps to answer this question. A unique moment coalesced in the 1970s and 1980s, bringing together favorable political and cultural variables for Māori not altogether present in previous eras. I locate the negotiation of the 1992 Sealord Fisheries Settlement in this cultural and political moment and evaluate the social and political consequences for Māori and the New Zealand Government.     

Black portraits in African-American literature: A perpective from 1920–1996, including the midwest

What is the effect of sociocultural conditioning in creating black portraits in African-American literature? As twentieth century cultural attitudes change, stereotyped portraits have evolved to more individualized portraits. The question of how these changes have occurred caused me to research the “spirit or ethos” of selected black literature from 1920–1996. After screening various works, I selected authors representing the Harlem Renaissance 1920–1930; the Depression Era 1930–1940; World War II and the Post-War Period 1940–1960; Civil Rights/Black Power Movement 1960–1970; and Contemporary Literature 1970–1996. The results show these particular qualities in African-American Literature: use of explicit, distinctive language and folk idioms; protests against dehumanization and victimization; awakened moral and racial consciousness; emphasis on cultural nationalism; rebellion against racism, and a private search for self-realization by the characters.     

When the Export of Social Problems Is No Longer Possible: Immigration Policies and Unemployment in Switzerland

Throughout the twentieth century, Switzerland has been one of the OECD countries with the highest proportion of immigrants in its population. The aim of this article is to show how institutional factors have shaped the opportunities for change in immigration and immigrant‐employment‐related policies there in the 1990s. Whereas unemployment had remained low in the 1970s and 1980s, there was a marked increase at the beginning of the 1990s. Existing migration policies were considered a central cause of this increase, since the great majority of foreigners who had come and settled in Switzerland in the periods of economic expansion were low‐skilled, and were now over‐represented among the unemployed. The reforms undertaken in the field of immigration and integration policy to respond to these new problems have been determined by specific institutional factors: direct democracy, a defensive migration regime, the development of immigrant rights and the weak autonomy of the central state. These factors account to a large extent for the limited scope and specific pathways of policy reforms in these two domains.     

Feminist thought in transition: Never a dull moment

In this essay, I summarize how I believe feminist thought has developed during the period 1960–2000 and where it might go in the future. First, I summarize the evolution of second-wave feminist thought during the period from the early 1960s to the late 1980s, focusing on liberal, radical, and Marxist–socialist feminisms. Next, I summarize multicultural, global, and postmodern feminisms as they emerged in the U.S. and elsewhere during the late 1980s and early 1990s, viewing them as a transition from second-wave to third-wave feminist thought. Third, I claim that young women today, including those who are doing feminism in the manner of third-wave feminists, are shaping a very particularistic, even individualistic form of feminism, with mixed consequences. Fourth, I will conclude that the future of feminist thought depends on its ability to resolve the sameness–difference debate, for unless women and the category of gender have some role to play in feminism, it is not clear that labeling one's self a “feminist” makes sense anymore.     

The long arm of the welfare state shortened: Home help in Sweden

Old age care in Sweden expanded greatly in all areas in the 1960s and 1970s. In the 1980s, both institutional and in-home services have retreated. Little substitution between the two kinds of care can be observed. Cutbacks relative to demographic needs, and probably also to actual needs, have occurred, nationally and locally. Home help is analyzed as a metaphor for social services and welfare at large. The strategy has been to give priority to the frailest and oldest clients. Others often have to make do without any services. Also, current recipients of home help services now get different inputs: in the 1980s and earlier, 8 of 10 home help hours were used for homemaking (such as shopping, cooking, cleaning and laundry); in the 1990s about half is used for personal care of the clients.     

纽约哈莱姆区的绅士化及其影响

美国的许多大城市在经过了二战以来长期的衰落以后,于20世纪60年代出现了复兴的趋势,其表现之一就是绅士化运动。自20世纪80年代以来,纽约衰败的黑人居民区哈莱姆区也出现了绅士化现象,并且具有一定的典型性。优越的地理位置、政府政策的推动、旅游业的发展、克林顿办公室的设立等,都推动了哈莱姆绅士化运动的出现与发展。哈莱姆的绅士化产生了一系列积极影响,比如增加了该区居民的生活便利,创造了大量的就业机会,减少了犯罪,推动了经济的发展等。但哈莱姆的绅士化也导致了一些消极影响,比如贫困居民的被迫迁居、小商业的破产等。     

Internal migration in India 1961-81

Trends in internal migration during the 1960s and 1970s are examined using data from Indian censuses, including that of 1981. Urban growth is analyzed in order to establish the relative impact of natural increase, rural-urban migration, and boundary changes. A discussion of the reasons for migration is also included. The paper concludes with a review of government policies on urban development and population redistribution.     

Home Ownership, Affordability, and Mothers' Changing Work and Family Roles

Objective . Elaborating on conventional explanations for rapid employment growth of married mothers of preschoolers, I propose that pursuit of home ownership contributed to this trend differently in different decades since 1950. Methods . Measuring husbands' income in terms of mortgage qualification and using logistic regression analysis of pooled Current Population Survey data to estimate trends standardized for compositional change, I compare hypothetical with observed trends since 1970. Results . Declining ability of husbands' income to qualify for mortgages and rising educational attainment of mothers explains the post-1970 accelerated employment growth for preschoolers' mothers. By the 1980s, other influences have greater relative effects on young mothers' employment. Conclusion . Home ownership contributed to slower growth in preschoolers' mothers' employment through the 1950s and 1960s, raising standard-of-living expectations. Declining affordability in the 1970s inspired even more rapid growth. Pursuit of prescribed standards of living has increasingly motivated families to embrace dual-earner work and family arrangements.     

THE BOYS IN BLUE AND THE BAD BLUE BOYS: A CASE STUDY OF INTERACTIVE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE POLICE AND ETHNIC YOUTH IN WESTERN SYDNEY

The paper draws on ethnographic fieldwork undertaken with a group of young men known collectively as the Bad Blue Boys (BBB)¹. These young men use the supporting of a soccer team (Sydney United in the national league) as a means of parading nationalistic allegiance to their parent's homeland, Croatia. Given the history of crowd conflict at Australian soccer matches and the current trends within soccer officialdom to move the sport away from its traditional affiliation with ethnic communities, it is inevitable that the BBB have come into confrontation with agents of social authority, such as the police, during an afternoon at the football. The participant observation aspect of the research is used to discuss the interaction between the police and the BBB at soccer matches, while interviews with members of the BBB are recounted to reveal group attitudes held about the police. The paper is written to articulate with other academic contributions which have investigated the relationship between youth from non-English speaking backgrounds (NESB) and the police in contemporary Australian urban contexts. A leading contributor to such studies, Janet Chan, has commented, ‘Australian research specifically on police-ethnic youth relations [paints] a negative portrait’ (Chan 1994, p. 176). The portrait painted by the present study is intended for comparison with such research. At the outset it must be stressed that the findings are peculiar to the study and that no great claim is made for extrapolation. However, this is not to say that the study does not reflect trends in relations between NESB youth and police in Australian cities. On the contrary, a conclusion will be drawn which argues that ethnographic studies of particular ethnic youth groupings and subcultures facilitate a social mapping of police youth relations.     

The geography of fertility reduction in Kenya

Record high fertility levels were recorded for Kenya in the late 1970's; however, a fertility reversal was experienced during the 1980's. Recent studies by Njoru, Robinson and the National Research Council and data from the 1989 and 1993 KDHS indicate that the fertility decline is real and pervasive. The release of the 1989 census data provides researchers with an additional source to document the fertility decline and to identify the spatial pattern of fertility reduction at the province and district level. The geography of fertility reduction is explored by addressing differences in the annual rate of population growth for each province and district.     

Contact Theory Extended: The Effects of Prior Racial Contact on Current Social Ties

Objective . We address methodological limitations in tests of contact theory. Just as importantly, we extend its theoretical focus to behaviors. Linking insights from social and cognitive psychology with contact theory, we hypothesize that prior racial contact will have significant effects on the racial diversity of contemporary social ties. Methods . Using the 1999–2000 Lilly Survey of Attitudes and Social Networks, we conduct univariate and multivariate analyses to test our hypotheses. Results . Those who had experienced prior interracial contact in schools and neighborhoods were more likely, as adults, to have more racially diverse general social groups and friendship circles. They were more likely to attend multiracial as opposed to a uniracial religious congregations, and to be interracially married. In general, these findings applied not only to all Americans, but to whites, African Americans, and Hispanics separately. They did not apply to Asians. Conclusions . Contact theory can and should be extended, rendering it more fruitful for studying race relations. Except when groups are an extremely small percentage of the population, even limited prior contact in multiracial settings appears to have important effects on contemporary social ties. These findings have important policy implications.