Diversity in flowering plants and their characteristics: integrating humans as a driver of urban floral resources

Urban neighborhoods vary in development intensity and in the life style and demographics of their residents. Decisions made by urban residents affect plant communities, their functional characteristics, and the floral resources they provide. We recorded flowers in front-facing yards in 58 neighborhoods in Chicago, IL (USA) and examined patterns in community composition and species turnover between neighborhoods. We investigated how species richness and plant characteristics, including origin, cultivation intent, and life cycle, are affected by neighborhood socioeconomic factors. Urban plant species tended to be perennial, ornamental, and non-native. White clover had the broadest distribution and the highest floral abundance but was not present in several of the highest-income neighborhoods. Although we found 144 morpho-species across neighborhoods, most occurred infrequently. Species turnover was highest for ornamental species and lowest for weedy species, suggesting that intentional plantings are driving beta diversity across the landscape. We found the highest species richness in neighborhoods with intermediate numbers of Hispanic and white residents and with intermediate number of residential lots; neighborhoods with racially or ethnically homogenous populations had fewer plant species. The high frequency of weeds in low-income neighborhoods, the occurrence of certain ornamental plant species in whiter, wealthier communities, and high turnover of species from one neighborhood to another, all suggest a disparity in plant-related ecosystem services across cities. Complexity in urban plantings may be influenced by the suite of perspectives that residents bring towards habitat management. Cultivation sustains a diversity of plants and creates a disparity in plant traits by neighborhood socioeconomics.     

Safety and Solidarity After the Boston Marathon Bombing: A Comparison of Three Diverse Boston Neighborhoods

This article investigates the effect of the Boston Marathon Bombing on city residents— how the tragic incident changed, or did not change, how Bostonians live in and feel about their community and neighborhoods. Unlike prior research that began weeks or months after a terrorist attack and used retrospective reports, this study spans the focal event. An address‐based sample of residents from three neighborhoods, distinct in racial and economic makeup was surveyed by mail using a three‐contact protocol. About two‐thirds of respondents answered a survey of neighborhood sentiments, and health and well‐being in the days before the bombing (N = 581) and slightly over a third answered the survey after the bombing (N = 313). Assessments of safety, city and neighborhood satisfaction and solidarity, mental health, and other key measures vary greatly between the three neighborhoods, which are diverse in racial and economic composition, but also vary in proximity to the bomb site. Net of neighborhood differences, the bombing had a strong negative effect on neighborhood cohesion and reduced use of public transit. Strong interactions are also found between timing of survey completion (pre and post bombing) and neighborhood for assessments of neighborhood solidarity.     

Formal and Informal Social Organization: Do Geography,Structural Inequality,and Other Forms of Social Organization Matter?

Neighborhood social organization is one way that neighborhoods matter for residents, as well as an intervention opportunity for macro practitioners. Neighborhood social organization encapsulates how neighborhoods differentially organize, both formally and informally. We tested whether neighborhood structural inequality, types of social organization, and spatial clustering were associated with both formal and informal neighborhood social organization. Formal and informal social organization were mutually reinforcing. Formal social organization, measured by organizational participation, predicted informal social organization. In multivariate spatial analysis, organizational participation was also influenced by adjacent neighborhoods. Practitioners should consider how adjacent neighborhoods could affect place-based interventions.     

Collective threat, trust, and the sense of personal control

A threatening and dangerous neighborhood may produce distressing emotions of anxiety, anger, and depression among the individuals who live there because residents find these neighborhoods subjectively alienating. The author introduces the idea that neighborhood disorder indicates collective threat, which is alienating-shaping perceptions of powerlessness and mistrust. The author presents a theory of trust that posits that mistrust develops in places where resources are scarce and threat is common and among individuals with few resources and who feel powerless to avoid or manage the threat. Perceived powerlessness develops with exposure to uncontrollable, negative conditions such as crime, danger, and threat in one's neighborhood. Thus, neighborhood disorder, common in disadvantaged neighborhoods, influences mistrust directly and indirectly by increasing perceptions of powerlessness among residents, which amplify disorder's effect on mistrust. The very thing needed to protect disadvantaged residents from the negative effects of their environment-a sense of personal control-is eroded by that environment in a process that the author calls structural amplification. Powerlessness and mistrust in turn are distressing, increasing levels of anxiety, anger, and depression.     

Neighborhood Organizations and Resident Assistance to Police1

Police and scholars note that successful crime fighting requires police and residents to “co‐produce” public safety. However, residents are often reluctant to get involved in policing initiatives or even report crimes they witness. One possible means of stimulating resident involvement in crime‐control activities is through neighborhood organizations. This research, conducted on 1,313 residents of 42 neighborhoods in western South Carolina, investigates whether neighborhood organization participation increases the likelihood of assisting police in crime‐control efforts. Results indicate that organization participants are more likely to assist police than are nonparticipants, even after controlling for social cohesion, perceptions of police legitimacy, various policing strategies, fear of crime, and demographic factors.     

Good kids with ties to “deviant” peers: network strategies used by African American and Latino young men in violent neighborhoods

Adolescence can be a precarious time for young men of color growing in low-income neighborhoods with high rates of violence. For young men in those neighborhoods this may mean developing a suite of coping strategies that help them successfully navigate their neighborhood and school. Those strategies may include developing social ties with neighborhood residents that are engaged in “deviant” behavior. The aim of this paper study is to leverage the concept of resiliency to examine how social ties to the neighborhood-based “deviant” peers operate as protective factors. To answer this question we use qualitative data from African American and Latino boys and young men from neighborhoods in Chicago and Waukegan, IL who are between the ages of 14–25. Themes emerged that highlight short term positive impacts of social ties with “deviant” peers vs long term consequences. Implications for social work practice and future research are discussed.     

Neighborhood Sectarian Displacement and the Battle for Baghdad: A Self‐Fulfilling Prophecy of Fear and Crimes Against Humanity in Iraq

We use two unique Iraq data sets to show how fear and uncertainty served to motivate the self‐fulfilling, neighborhood‐specific forces that followed the U.S.‐led invasion of Iraq. Sectarian criminal violence by armed Shia and Sunni organizations created a situation of ethnic/religious cleansing that reconfigured much of Baghdad. The article focuses on the case of how one particularly violent group, the Mahdi Army, mobilized through the coercive entrepreneurship of Muqtada al‐Sadr, used organized crime tactics of killing, torture, rape, kidnapping, harassment, threats, and forced displacement in a widespread and systematic attack against civilians that forced Sunni residents from their Baghdad neighborhoods. Ordinary Iraqis were victims of an amplified “self‐fulfilling prophecy of fear” that created the momentum for massive sectarian displacement in the battle for Baghdad. We demonstrate that there is a neighborhood specific effect of early postinvasion neighborhood fear net of intervening violence on displacement three years later, following the Al‐Qaeda Samara Shrine attack, confirming an effect of a self‐fulfilling prophecy of fear in the neighborhoods of Baghdad that compounded in a self‐reinforcing way. The changed demography of Baghdad was effectively consolidated by the later surge of U.S. forces that left in place the territorial gains made by the Shia‐led Mahdi Army at the expense of former Sunni residents. We conclude that this continues to matter because the resulting grievances have contributed to renewed violence.     

Sustainability of Nonprofit Human Service Organizations in a Neighborhood Context

Nonprofit human service organizations (NHSOs) carry both practical and symbolic implications for serving local needs. Whether neighborhood characteristics influence the existence of NHSOs is a critical inquiry, albeit with mixed results. This study examines the relationship between neighborhood characteristics and organizational sustainability based on the data of the capital district of New York State. Spatial analysis showed that the largest concentration of NHSOs remains in the inner‐city neighborhoods. Regression analysis identified small revenues of organizations and density of African American residents as significant factors that are negatively associated with the longevity of NHSOs, controlling for neighborhood income level. These findings imply that small‐budget organizations in African American neighborhoods may experience a quick turnover, which prompts a deeper understanding of how NHSOs attempt to sustain in such neighborhoods.     

Neighborhood Scale and Collective Efficacy: Does Size Matter?

The theory of collective efficacy emphasizes the role of the neighborhood as a unit of social control that can deter crime. The neighborhood unit is most often defined as a census tract or a similar administratively defined measure. These neighborhood definitions are not always sociologically meaningful. That is, administratively defined geographical areas do not necessarily align with residents' perceptions of their neighborhood's boundaries, which incorporate the familiarity with an area and interactions with other residents. Officially defined neighborhoods often present an inaccurate representation of collective efficacy, as these areas are not likely to function as a cohesive social unit. An alternative measure of “bespoke” neighborhoods is presented in geographical research. The bespoke neighborhood identifies a neighborhood area as the distance from a specific point or the number of people situated nearest to a specific location. This concept takes into consideration each resident's unique definition of the neighborhood. In addition, the bespoke neighborhood can be assessed on different scales to identify the most appropriate neighborhood size, where patterns of behavior are most meaningful. Bespoke neighborhoods can be used to identify sociologically meaningful neighborhoods that can inform the theory of collective efficacy.     

DETERMINANTS OF INDIVIDUAL NEIGHBORHOOD TIES AND SOCIAL RESOURCES IN POOR URBAN NEIGHBORHOODS

Studies on life in poor urban neighborhoods suggest the importance of kin and non-kin ties for support. Research also notes the dearth of certain ties that are important to locate economic and social resources. This research evaluates the determinants of certain types of social resources for residents in poor urban neighborhoods. Specifically, I consider the relationship between five types of neighborhood ties for residents--religious, kin, friendship, neighbor, and informal jobs--as well as race/ethnicity, and neighborhood poverty and social resources. Using the Urban Poverty & Family Life Survey and OLS and logistic regression analyses, results show religious and friendship ties are important predictors of individual social resources and support. Also, neighborhood poverty is insignificant in most of the analyses and when it is important, residents in more impoverished areas are more likely to seek out social resources than their counterparts in non-poor and moderately poor areas. These findings support variants of Compression and Composition theories as possibleexemplars for explaining ways in which residents secure social resources in poor urban neighborhoods.     

Race differentials in obesity: the impact of place

This article reveals race differentials in obesity as both an individual- and neighborhood-level phenomena. Using neighborhood-level data from the 1990-1994 National Health Interview Survey, we find that neighborhoods characterized by high proportions of black residents have a greater prevalence of obesity than areas in which the majority of the residents are white. Using individual-level data, we also find that residents of neighborhoods in which at least one-quarter of the residents are black face a 13 percent increase in the odds of being obese compared to residents of other communities. The association between neighborhood racial composition and obesity is completely attenuated after including statistical controls for the poverty rate and obesity prevalence of respondents' neighborhoods. These findings support the underlying assumptions of both institutional and social models of neighborhood effects.     

Clean and green organizing in urban neighborhoods: Measuring perceived and objective outcomes

ABSTRACT

One way in which urban community organizations attempt to improve neighborhood health is through cleaning and greening efforts. Few studies have evaluated how such efforts are related to changes in both residents’ perceptions of neighborhoods and objective community-wide cleaning and greening indicators over time. Drawing upon quantitative and qualitative data collected during an evaluation of a community-building initiative in two communities, results show how neighborhood changes in cleaning and greening were reflected in perceived and objective measures and how these measures compare across different time periods and sub-groups of residents within the two target communities. We provide suggestions for additional ways that future evaluations of urban cleaning and greening efforts can examine the impact.     

Middle Class Asian American Neighborhoods: Resident and Practitioner Perceptions

Abstract

We conducted a survey of 422 Asian Indian and Korean American residents of New Jersey to determine how middle-income Asian Americans rate their neighborhood environments compared to non-Asians living in the same or similar environments, and the issues that affect their neighborhood quality ratings. In addition, we interviewed practitioners in these same communities for their perceptions of their interactions with Asian Americans. The first part examines Asian Americans' perceptions of their neighborhoods; the second part focuses on resident-practitioner interactions from the perspective of practitioners. The third part discusses results. We present suggestions to practitioners for interacting with Asian American clients on a proposed land use change.     

Moving teenagers out of high-risk neighborhoods: how girls fare better than boys

Moving to Opportunity (MTO) offered public housing residents the opportunity to move to low-poverty neighborhoods. Several years later, boys in the experimental group fared no better on measures of risk behavior than their control group counterparts, whereas girls in the experimental group engaged in lower-risk behavior than control group girls. The authors explore these differences by analyzing data from in-depth interviews conducted with 86 teens in Baltimore and Chicago. They find that daily routines, fitting in with neighborhood norms, neighborhood navigation strategies, interactions with peers, friendship making, and distance from father figures may contribute to how girls who moved via MTO benefited more than boys.     

“A Grain of Salt in a Pepper Shaker”: Interviewing Whites,Blacks, and Latinos about Their Neighborhood Preferences

Several perspectives dominate as explanations for neighborhood preferences: pure race, racial proxy, race‐based neighborhood stereotyping, and race‐associated neighborhood factors. This analysis extends and supports the pure race and race‐associated neighborhood factors arguments by showing that these theories are applied differently depending on respondents' social class, race and ethnicity, and whether they are talking about white, black, or Latino neighborhoods. Race‐associated factors are emphasized for white and black neighborhoods, but pure race serves as a better theoretical framework for understanding people's preferences for Latino neighborhoods. I analyze qualitative interview data, using maps of real neighborhoods and hypothetical neighborhood show cards, to examine the neighborhood preferences of 65 white, black, and Latino residents in Ogden, Utah, and Buffalo, New York.     

How beliefs about substance use differ by socio-demographic characteristics,individual experiences,and neighborhood environments among urban adolescents

In this article, we tested a series of Item Response Theory (IRT) models to examine the individual and neighborhood variation in perceived risk along dimensions of substance use (alcohol, marijuana, and hard drugs) and usage patterns (light/experimental use, moderate use, heavy/regular use). Data were gathered from 2266 adolescents aged 9, 12, and 15 residing in 79 Chicago neighborhoods. Developmental patterns for age and amount of use were observed whereby older respondents rated alcohol and marijuana as less harmful compared to the younger respondents, but rated hard drugs as more harmful. Risk perceptions were found to be more closely tied to one's direct experience with drugs rather than a general constellation of beliefs. Neighborhood variation in risk perceptions was also observed for hard drugs and three patterns of use, controlling for characteristics of individual residents. Neighborhoods did not vary in risk perceptions toward alcohol use. Individual-level factors rather than characteristics of the neighborhoods explained the observed neighborhood variation in perceptions toward marijuana use. These findings illustrate the complex links between individual and contextual factors in the development of beliefs about the health risks associated with substance use.     

Neighborhood disadvantage, disorder, and health.

We examine the question of whether living in a disadvantaged neighborhood damages health, over and above the impact of personal socioeconomic characteristics. We hypothesize that (1) health correlates negatively with neighborhood disadvantage adjusting for personal disadvantage, and that (2) neighborhood disorder mediates the association, (3) partly because disorder and the fear associated with it discourage walking and (4) partly because they directly impair health. Data are from the 1995 Community, Crime, and Health survey, a probability sample of 2,482 adults in Illinois, with linked information about the respondent's census tract. We find that residents of disadvantaged neighborhoods have worse health (worse self-reported health and physical functioning and more chronic conditions) than residents of more advantaged neighborhoods. The association is mediated entirely by perceived neighborhood disorder and the resulting fear. It is not mediated by limitation of outdoor physical activity. The daily stress associated with living in a neighborhood where danger, trouble, crime and incivility are common apparently damages health. We call for a bio-demography of stress that links chronic exposure to threatening conditions faced by disadvantaged individuals in disadvantaged neighborhoods with physiological responses that may impair health.     

Functional Ability,Neighborhood Resources and Housing Satisfaction among Older Adults in the U.S.

The purpose of this study was to explore neighborhood resources that influence the housing satisfaction of older adults. The study included 10,146 participants from the 2009 panel of the American Housing Survey who were 65 years and older. Hierarchical regression modeling was performed to examine older adults’ perceptions of neighborhood resources and consequently the role these resources play in predicting housing satisfaction among community dwelling and residents of assisted living, controlling for age, sex, ethnicity, education, and housing maintenance. In addition, three levels of physical functioning among residents of assisted living were examined. Results showed that there were differences in housing satisfaction by residences and levels of physical functioning. Subjective evaluations of neighborhoods and the near surrounds were significant predictors of housing satisfaction. Results of the study suggest that policy makers and housing professionals need to continue to consider the role of supportive neighborhoods and social environments in promoting successful aging particularly for frail older adults.     

Explorations in Neighborhood Differentiation*

The cyclical interest in local units of the urban community has failed to provide cumulative knowledge about the varieties, functions and ethnic distribution of types of neighborhoods. Research in Detroit, involving 16 black and 12 white neighborhoods, provides sufficient quantitative data to formulate multivariate distinctions of neighborhood type and function. Among the most important findings was the extent to which residents of given types of neighborhoods used informal and formal services. The total utilization of neighbor and formal agency services was also tied to neighborhood type. The present research suggests a more comprehensive typology for describing the character of local neighborhoods and for devising strategies of intervention where the prime unit is a local neighborhood.