Equality in Cyberdemocracy? Gauging Gender Gaps in On‐Line Civic Participation*

Objectives. This study examines gender gaps in civic participation by describing gaps in on‐line participation and by explaining whether socialization, situation, or structure best account for gaps. Methods. Cross‐tabulations and OLS regression were used to analyze 2000 GSS data, which show that men are more likely to have used a computer or the web and to use the web or chat rooms more. Results. Few gender differences exist in on‐line civic participation. Men more frequently use government information websites and discuss political views, the economy, foreign affairs, and taxes on the web. Women tend to visit websites to better understand issue complexities and to discuss or learn about gender or women's issues. Marital or work situations do not influence discussion, but the structural variable of education specifies some on‐line civic participation. Conclusion. Social status is better than gender at explaining civic participation in general, political information source gathering, and versatility of political interests pursued on‐line.     

网络空间性别不平等的再生产:互联网工资溢价效应的性别差异——以第三期妇女地位调查为例

本文通过倾向值匹配的方法发现：在控制了其他因素之后,互联网使用者的平均工资收入是非使用者的1.38倍;同时,互联网溢价效应存在着显著的性别差异,女性的互联网工资溢价为男性互联网工资溢价的90.6%。此外,本文发现,互联网工资溢价效应与人们的网络行为密切相关。男性相比女性,具有更强烈的使用互联网资源进行再学习和人力资本再积累的偏好;在女性互联网使用者之间,性别观念更平等的女性具有更强烈的使用互联网资源进行再学习和人力资本再积累的偏好。在传统的网络空间性别不平等的研究框架下,本文着重于探析性别文化观念如何影响人们对互联网的使用偏好和使用方式,从而成为导致网络空间性别不平等的再生产的重要原因和机制。     

Gender and the Internet

Objective. This article examines whether there are differences in men's and women's use of the Internet and whether any such gender gaps have changed in recent years. Methods. We use data from several surveys during the period 1997–2001 to show trends in Internet usage and to estimate regression models of Internet usage that control for individuals' socioeconomic characteristics. Results. Women were significantly less likely than men to use the Internet at all in the mid–1990s, but this gender gap in being online disappeared by 2000. However, once online, women remain less frequent and less intense users of the Internet. Conclusions. There is little reason for concern about sex inequalities in Internet access and usage now, but gender differences in frequency and intensity of Internet usage remain.     

Differences in Actual and Perceived Online Skills: The Role of Gender*

Objective. The literature on gender and technology use finds that women and men differ significantly in their attitudes toward their technological abilities. Concurrently, existing work on science and math abilities of students suggests that such perceived differences do not always translate into actual disparities. We examine the yet‐neglected area concerning gender differences with respect to Internet‐use ability. In particular, we test how self‐perceived abilities are related to actual abilities and how these may differ by gender. Methods. We use new data on web‐use skill to test empirically whether there are differences in men's and women's abilities to navigate online content. We draw on a diverse sample of adult Internet users to investigate the questions raised. Results. Findings suggest that men and women do not differ greatly in their online abilities. However, we find that women's self‐assessed skill is significantly lower than that of men. Conclusions. Women's lower self‐assessment regarding their web‐use skills may affect significantly the extent of their online behavior and the types of uses to which they put the medium. We discuss the implications of these findings for social inequality.     

Gender, Interpersonal Power, and Social Influence

This article reviews research on gender differences in power and their effect on social influence. Evidence indicates that men generally possess higher levels of expert and legitimate power than women do and that women possess higher levels of referent power than men do. These differences are reflected, to some extent, in the influence strategies used by men and women and, more clearly, in gender differences in social influence. Women generally have greater difficulty exerting influence than men do, particularly when they use influence that conveys competence and authority. These findings indicate that gender differences in influence are mediated by gender differences in power.     

Gender and Science in Developing Areas: Has the Internet Reduced Inequality?*

Objective. This article examines the impact of the Internet on the research careers of female scientists in three developing areas: Ghana, Kenya, and Kerala, India. Most empirical studies of gender and science focus on the developed world, yet theoretical accounts emphasize more extreme differences in developing areas. Limited evidence from Africa and Asia shows gender inequity is restricted to a few key dimensions, broadly related to differences in human and social capital. Specifically, women are less likely to acquire an advanced degree and more likely to experience educational and organizational “localism.” Such localism is related to constraints on physical mobility that are widely expected to diminish with the introduction of the Internet. Methods. Using longitudinal data on 1,147 scientists in Ghana, Kenya, and south India, we examine gender differences in human and social capital by conducting a series of t tests and chi‐square tests. Results. We show that higher education and Internet access increased dramatically, but localism has not been reduced significantly and may be increasing. Conclusions. This finding casts doubt on the presumption that the removal of communication constraints will soon reduce career differentials resulting from the mobility constraints on women professionals.     

Using the Internet and Email for Health Purposes: The Impact of Health Status*

Objective. Increasingly, people use the Internet and email for health purposes; however, we know little about whether this varies by health status. This study examines whether sick or healthy people are more likely to access the Internet, conduct online health searches, and exchange emails regarding health issues. Methods. We conduct multivariate analysis on a random sample of 2,038 adults. Results. Despite greater Internet access, respondents in excellent/good health are less likely to say they conduct online health searches because they have no health concerns or are satisfied with other health sources. In contrast, sick and disabled respondents are more likely to seek medical information online, and do so more frequently. They are also more likely to exchange health emails with friends and physicians. Conclusions. Practitioners especially need to educate their sicker patients about the uneven quality of online health information since they are more likely than healthier patients to conduct online health searches.     

Self‐assessed consequences of unemployment on individual wellbeing and family relationships: A study of unemployed women and men in Finland

Weckström S. Self‐assessed consequences of unemployment on individual wellbeing and family relationships: a study of unemployed women and men in Finland The present study investigated how family situation and gender affect the experience of unemployment. The sample consisted of 494 Finnish women and 387 Finnish men who had been registered as unemployed for at least 3 months. The main method used in the study was analysis of covariance. Women assessed the consequences of unemployment on their individual wellbeing and on the parent–child relationship less negatively than men, but there was no corresponding gender difference concerning spousal relationship. Lone mothers experienced the change in individual wellbeing slightly more negatively than women in other family situations; this difference was in part related to financial strain. Financial strain and non‐financial work motivation predicted negative changes in individual wellbeing and in spousal relationship for both genders. Parent–child relationships were, however, independent from these variables. The way family relationships were affected was connected to changes in individual wellbeing.     

Yakity‐Yak: Who Talks Back? An Email Experiment*

Objective. We extend the scope of the often‐asked question “who talks more—men or women?” by analyzing gender differences in talking via electronic communication. We do this by conducting a controlled experiment to elicit email communications and personal characteristics from a sample of college students. Methods. An integration of the disparate fields of communications, education, women's studies, and economics guides our approach, which uses multivariate regression to explain word counts from our electronic survey. Results. We find a positive and significant effect of being female on number of words used, especially when communication is with a female professor, consistent with a female role model hypothesis. Conclusion. Overall, we find that women “talk” more than men—sometimes. The results depend on the topic of conversation and to whom they are talking. Electronic communications may level the playing field, or even give females an advantage, in certain communication situations.     

The reverse environmental gender gap in China: evidence from "The China Survey"

Objectives This article explores gender differences in attitudes about the seriousness of the environment as a problem in China using the “2008 China Survey.” Methods We use generalized ordered logit models to analyze survey respondents’ environmental attitudes. Results Our results indicate that there is indeed a “gender gap” in environmental attitudes in China, but the pattern is reversed from what has been generally found in previous work conducted in the United States and Europe. Chinese men, not women, show a greater concern about environmental problems and the seriousness of the environmental degradation in China. Further, we find that this gender gap is based largely in the substantial economic and educational differences between men and women in contemporary China. Conclusions This study emphasizes the mediating influence of socioeconomic variables in explaining gender attitudes toward the environment in China. Our findings suggest that in different contexts, women may be faced with difficult decisions between immediate economic necessities and long-term environmental concerns. The observed environmental gender gap in China will likely persist unless further economic development results in improved access to education and economic conditions for Chinese women.     

Gender, Financial Risk, and Probability Weights

Women are commonly stereotyped as more risk averse than men in financial decision making. In this paper we examine whether this stereotype reflects gender differences in actual risk-taking behavior by means of a laboratory experiment with monetary incentives. Gender differences in risk taking may be due to differences in valuations of outcomes or in probability weights. The results of our experiment indicate that value functions do not differ significantly between men and women. Men and women differ in their probability weighting schemes, however. In general, women tend to be less sensitive to probability changes. They also tend to underestimate large probabilities of gains more strongly than do men. This effect is particularly pronounced when the decisions are framed in investment terms. As a result, women appear to be more risk averse than men in specific circumstances.     

Gender and the credit rationing of small businesses

Rapid small business ownership growth rates among women have motivated research on issues related to gender and small business performance. The importance of credit access for the success of small businesses, as well as evidence that women have less access to credit than male business owners, has led researchers to explore the reasons for this. In this paper, we estimate a model of credit rationing by gender of the business owner. Our results are consistent with previous studies that find higher loan denial rates and lower loan application rates among women compared with men. Testing the robustness of the results we find that women seem to be rationing themselves in the credit market rather than being discriminated against by banks. Reasons for this self-rationing behavior are an important topic for further research.     

Email Effects on the Structure of Local Associations: A Social Network Analysis*

Objectives. This article explores the impact of email on the network structure of small, voluntary associations. By focusing on the density and centralization of associations, we illuminate how the Internet affects their cohesiveness and democratic character. Methods. Based on network data collected from 41 community‐based associations that are comparable on a variety of factors known to influence network structure, we employ multiple regression techniques to explore the impact of increased email use on group‐ and individual‐level network measures. Results. We find that the technological nature of email as well as the background, interests, and intentions of its users interact to influence density and centralization. Individuals employ electronic mail differently from other communication modes such as phone and face‐to‐face communication. Network density increases, and network centralization either increases or decreases, depending on the distribution of email use in the association. Conclusions. These effects on associational structure are likely to have significant long‐run impacts on the cohesion, efficacy, and democratic character of voluntary associations.     

性别文化差异给跨性别文化交际带来的矛盾与困惑

男性和女性在语言运用过程中存在着语音语调、词汇、语法结构等方面的差异。性别语言差异源于男性和女性不同的心理特征、性别角色、社会分工、社会偏见、以及权势和支配欲。性别差异不只是生物学上的差异,而主要是一种文化构建。不同的性别角色促使男性和女性获得各自的角色行为,成为不同性别文化的成员。性别文化差异势必导致男性和女性在交际规则、交际风格、交际方略、心理定势、价值观等方面的差异,为两性之间的交际带来困难。只有了解不同性别的交际规则和交际方略,培养对容易导致交际失败的交际规则的敏感性以及性别文化差异意识,才能克服性别文化差异所导致的交际失败,达到有效交际的目的。     

Does gender ideology explain differences between countries regarding the involvement of women and of men in paid and unpaid work?

Women spend more time doing household work than men, and men spend more time working at paying jobs outside the home than women. But studies also show that there are major differences between countries regarding the degree to which women and men involve themselves in different kinds of labour activity. The main aim of the article is to analyse the significance of gender ideology when studying differences between countries regarding the involvement of women and men in paid and unpaid work. The analysis is based on national random samples from ten OECD countries that were collected within the framework of ISSP 1994. The conclusions are: (a) gender ideology has an impact in all the studied countries on the degree to which women and men involve and engage themselves in labour and (b) gender ideology partially explains the differences between countries regarding women's and men's involvement in paid and unpaid work.     

Political information,gender and the vote: the differential impact of organizations,personal discussion,and the media on the electoral decisions of women and men

Although there are many demonstrated ways in which men and women approach politics differently, we know very little about how sources of political information, e.g., mass media, political organizations, differentially influence the vote choices of men and women. Using a rich, contextual dataset containing measures not only of respondent perceptions of political information, but actual content coding of those sources of political information, we estimate how television, newspapers, personal discussants, organizations, and political parties may have impacted the voting of men and women in the 1992 U.S. presidential election. We find that women’s vote choices are more likely than men’s to be influenced by the organizations to which they belong. Women are also more likely to respond to television news with a hostile media bias—they see television newscasts as definitively favoring the candidate that they oppose. We address possible explanations for these patterns of results and point towards directions for additional research.     

Sex and the Statehouse: The Effects of Gender on Legislative Roll‐Call Voting*

Objective. This analysis examines whether differences exist between women and men state legislators in their roll‐call voting behavior involving matters of economic and regulatory policy. Methods. Using interest group rating scores, I examine the voting behavior of representatives in the lower houses of 28 states in legislative sessions from 1995 to 2000. By controlling for a host of variables related to legislators (political party, years of service, etc.) and their districts (average income, level of education, urbanization, etc.), I am able to isolate the independent effect of gender on roll‐call voting. Results. The findings demonstrate that among Democratic legislators women are less conservative than men, but among Republican lawmakers women are slightly more conservative than men. Additional analyses show that many factors that influence legislative voting by women and men are similar; however, political party has a more prominent effect among women. Conclusion. Although factors such as political party and some constituency characteristics exert a much stronger influence than gender, women and men legislators differ in their roll‐call voting even when controls for a wide assortment of individual‐ and district‐level conditions are taken into account.     

Global Economy and Gender Inequalities: The Case of the Urban Chinese Labor Market*

Objectives. This article examines the effects of economic globalization on gender inequalities in urban China. It argues that the significance of economic globalization on gender inequality depends on its impact on job queues in the labor market of a country. Methods. Using both individual‐ and city‐level data, and a series of multilevel linear and logistic models, we analyze the effects of three city‐level variables on the gender gap in income: foreign direct investment (FDI) per capita, growth rate of FDI, and opening up to overseas investment early on. We also examine gender differences in employment in high‐paying foreign‐invested firms, and in lower‐paying export‐oriented manufacturing. Results. We find no variation in gender gap in income among cities of varying levels of FDI, growth rates of FDI, or whether they were among the earliest to open up to international investment. Women are more likely to be employed in export‐oriented manufacturing industries that offer lower wages and are less likely to work in high‐paying foreign firms and joint ventures. Conclusions. These results suggest that economic globalization profoundly influences gender inequalities by changing the nature of job queues, and men and women are sorted and matched into jobs accordingly. Economic globalization contributed to and perpetuated a gendered distribution of male and female workers in the Chinese urban labor market in the late 1990s.     

Digitalization,Street‐Level Bureaucracy and Welfare Users' Experiences

Internet/web‐based forms of communication have increasingly been implemented by welfare agencies. However, there have been few studies of the experiences of welfare service users and the consequences of new technology for welfare service users. To what extent is the new technology adopted by the Norwegian Welfare and Labour Organization (NAV) used, and how do the users apply and experience the new possibilities? Do screen‐to‐screen encounters replace face‐to‐face encounters, and is this trend affected by age, gender, education or type of benefit? To answer these questions, we combine survey data, short‐term fieldwork in welfare reception areas and qualitative interviews with people receiving health and work‐related benefits. Our study indicates that screen‐to‐screen interaction in general does not replace face‐to‐face encounters, as many face‐to‐face encounters are related to screen communication. However, digital competence combined with life circumstances appears to be the source of a new divide between welfare service users.     

Gender variation in the antecedents of task advice network size: Organizational tenure and core self-evaluations

Research finds gender differences in the size, quality, and consequences of social networks in the workplace. Building on these studies, we focus on one type of social network: task advice networks, which we define as the networks that act as conduits for information and knowledge directly related to work task completion. Using data on over 1300 employees, we test the relationships between task advice network size and two variables – organizational tenure and core self-evaluations, examining differences by gender. We find a larger positive association between core self-evaluations and task advice network size for men than for women. Additionally, we find that men, but not women, have larger networks when lower in tenure.