Tornado warning: Understanding the National Weather Service’s communication strategies

This study explores the National Weather Service’s communication through a multi-sited rapid ethnography that extends the fully functioning society theory. National Weather Service field offices do not employ public information officers. Instead, forecasters predict the weather, craft messages, and build relationships with their publics. Scholars have called for public relations research that examines messages, including how crisis communication can help publics cope. Additionally, scholars have noted that all organizations need public relations, even if they do not employ formal public relations personnel. In our study, forecasters emphasized the need to build their publics’ tornado threat awareness and provided strategies to make weather science accessible. Forecasters discussed a variety of message strategies including avoiding fear appeals, humanizing the organization, and visualizing risks. Forecasters also built relationships with active publics through soliciting weather spotters and empowering them to prepare others for severe weather. Overall, findings expand knowledge about how organizations can employ strategic public relations to benefit society, thereby extending fully functioning society theory.     

Field Dynamics and Public Relations Theory: Toward the Management of Multiple Publics

This article expands on the theoretical idea that public relations should be a two-way symmetrical process in which organizations use principles of communication, negotiation, and conflict resolution to manage relationships with strategic publics. We point out that the symmetrical model is two-way and does not explain the situation in which an organization must communicate with multiple publics about a problem. In the typical public relations case, the organization carries on a public debate with at least one relevant public in front of numerous other publics. This article adapts the method of field dynamics for assessing the relative positions of publics and organizations. The method makes it possible to compare organizations and publics on the dimensions of dominance—submissiveness, friendly-unfriendly, and group versus self-orientation. We compare our method with the situational theory of publics, co-orientation, and cultural analysis—all of which have been used in public relations theory and research. We then apply field dynamics to a dispute with Native Americans in Wisconsin and suggest intervention strategies for dealing with the dispute.     

Identifying and Responding to Activist Publics: A Case Study

Activist groups are strategic publics because they constrain an organization's ability to accomplish its goals and mission. Activists create issues; they appeal to government, the courts, or media for litigation, regulation, or other forms of pressure. As a result, research on activism has become one of the most important domains of public relations research. I begin this article with the premise that public relations practitioners must develop sensitivity to activists, he able to identify activist publics before they become active, and develop communication strategies to foster mutual understanding with them. The results are reported of a case study of environmental activism against a multinational company working in the Central American country of Belize. The organization failed to identify activist publics at the beginning of its Belize project and made no attempt to communicate with them. The activists then went elsewhere for information and escalated overt pressure on the organization. Media coverage, however, had little effect on the activists because they had their own specialized communication networks and newsletter. The organization then used press agentry and public information models of public relations to counteract the activists; as a result, the pressure escalated. I also found evidence that the organization became more successful with activists when it used a symmetrical model of public relations during a radio debate.     

Dual modes of ‘Good will hunting’: Untangling the reputation and relationship correlations en route to foreign amity

The present study theorizes ways in which foreign publics’ different relationship building patterns are associated with the reputation of a host country and with the outcomes of those patterns, which yield positive behavioral intentions. The study first distinguished the reputational relationship group (i.e., those who lack firsthand experience with the host country) from the behavioral relationship group (i.e., those who have firsthand experience with the host country). Next, it further conceptualized and tested the structural paths that theoretically illustrate how reputation is built across these two different groups of foreign publics. Model testing results suggested that the two groups fit well with the respective models. The results imply that the puzzle of relationship’s and reputation’s causal influences on the formation of future behavior can be solved using differentiated communication strategies. An understanding of these two distinct processing models provides a new foundation for theory building in public relations and public diplomacy, as well as new ground for strategic relationship management with foreign publics.     

A semiotic approach to the internal functioning of publics: implications for strategic communication and public relations

Employing public relations as a paradigmatic instance of strategic communication, this article challenges the prevailing view of publics as reactive entities. The article briefly reviews the two primary schools of semiotics, Saussurean and Peircean, and argues for the utility of the latter for building a language-centered understanding of publics. The Peircean ideas of unlimited semiosis, semiotic rhetoric, and community are employed to argue that publics ought to be understood primarily as self-actuated and interactive social entities with values and internal dynamics at least as complex and important to communication campaigns as are message content or client/practitioner intentions.The article concludes that we can best understand a public as an ongoing process of agreement upon an interpretation, and that during this process a public may well develop an interpretation that is more sophisticated, insightful, and socially linked than the understanding with which the practitioner/client started. As a result, we argue, publics should be accorded the preeminent position when studying or practicing any form of strategic communication, including public relations. Carl Botan is Associate Professor at Purdue University. Francisco Soto (MA, Purdue, 1995) is an Account Director for Aleph Communicacion, a public relations firm in Madrid, Spain and lectures at several higher education institutions.     

Relationship Cultivation in Public Diplomacy: A Qualitative Study of Relational Antecedents and Cultivation Strategies

Political public relations and public diplomacy both focus on managing communication to build and maintain relationships for a political purpose. Public diplomacy focuses on foreign publics and involves governments and organizations seeking to build relationships internationally. This study explored relationship cultivation, i.e., the process of initiating, nurturing positive, and recovering from negative relationships between various public diplomacy actors. Data included 32 in-depth interviews with communication officers in the United States. Results confirmed some of the previously developed relationship cultivation dimensions and suggested new ones. The study offers a nuanced discussion of relationship cultivation factors and an explanation of how they apply to public diplomacy engagement.     

Public engagement with nonprofit organizations on Facebook

Explicating Facebook's engagement features, this study explored whether organizational message strategies based on the four models of public relations have an impact on the different levels of public engagement. The study found that publics demonstrate high levels of engagement with organizational messages when two-way symmetrical communication is used, compared to public information or two-way asymmetrical models. The study also provided practical implications for nonprofit practitioners to engage with publics via social media.     

Types and dimensions of organization–public relationships in greater China

Public relations are the major force in the establishment of organization–public relationships (OPRs) in the United States and other countries. This study is a metaresearch that reports a meta-analysis of three studies on relationship management with publics in the greater China area, including mainland China and Hong Kong. A metaresearch is used to gain general and theoretical conclusions on a specific topic by synthesizing research results from similar studies [Grunig, J. E., Grunig, L. A., Sriramesh, K., Huang, Y. H., & Lyra, A. (1995). Models of public relations in an international setting. Journal of Public Relations Research, 7, 163–186]. The purpose of this study is to extend the concepts of relationship management to the Chinese context by investigating the types of relationships between organizations and the Chinese publics and other possible factors that affect the outcomes of the relationships. This article first provides a brief literature review on relationship management of public relations. It is followed by a report of the result analysis of the three studies in relation to OPR types and cultivation strategies. Finally, the research results, their implications, and future research directions will be discussed.     

Building dialogic relationships through the world wide web

This article provides a theory-based, strategic framework to facilitate relationship building with publics through the World Wide Web. Although many essays on the Web have appeared in professional and technical periodicals, most treatments of the Web have lacked theoretical frameworks. Strategic communication on the World Wide Web can benefit from a consideration of dialogic communication.This article offers dialogic communication as a theoretical framework to guide relationship building between organizations and publics. Five strategies are provided for communication professionals use to create dialogic relationships with Internet publics.     

Comparing the two sides of the nonprofit organization–donor relationship: Applying coorientation methodology to relationship management

Although public relations scholars recommend practitioners strive for symmetry in their communication programming, scholarship on the organization–public relationship has abandoned the push for symmetry despite potential problems that could emerge when the organization and publics have different viewpoints. Using the coorientation methodology, this study found that even though fundraisers and donors at a West coast hospital viewed their relationship positively, the differences in the evaluations leave room for the organization to devise strategies to improve the relationship status.     

Corporate public relations dynamics: Internal vs. external stakeholders and the role of the practitioner

Most public relations research advocates for stronger organization-public relationships and the implementation of dialogic theory to advance the practice and elevate the status of the public relations practitioner. However, this study reveals that internal relationship dynamics can prevent corporate public relations practitioners from carrying out this function of the public relations role. Twelve weeks of observation and eleven interviews were conducted at a Fortune 1000 technology company to gain insights on how corporate PR practitioners build relationships with external publics, to gauge practitioners’ orientation to dialogue, and to identify challenges to external relationship building. Results show that internal relationship management is a prerequisite to corporate public relations practitioners’ success in developing mutually beneficial relationships with key publics. These findings have implications for both the theory and practice of public relations especially when considering the discussion of the technician versus strategic manager role of public relations and the advancement of the field to a professional status.     

Strategic Thinking about Employee Communication Behavior (ECB) in Public Relations: Testing the Models of Megaphoning and Scouting Effects in Korea

In public relations, employees are regarded as one of the most important strategic constituencies because they interact with external publics on a daily basis. However, employees' communication behavior (ECB) has not been extensively researched in public relations. The purpose of this research was to conceptualize and develop concrete measurements of ECB that can help theoretical development and strategic planning in public relations. In particular, the study identified two unique aspects of ECB—megaphoning and scouting—that refer to employees' voluntary efforts to collect and circulate strategic information externally and internally. In addition, a new concept, microboundary spanning, based on the two aspects of ECB is conceptualized. In this study, symmetrical internal communication and employee-organization relationships were posited as antecedent variables to the proposed ECB variables. A survey research was conducted with 300 employees in different types of organizations in Korea.     

Enhancing motivation, ability, and opportunity to process public relations messages

Drawing on the motivation, ability, and opportunity (M-A-O) model in the consumer psychology literature, this article suggests that motivation, ability, and opportunity provide theoretically rich frameworks to address strategies for effective communication with publics in general and inactive publics in particular. Examples of specific techniques frequently used in the construction of public relations messages are related to each of these three concepts. Implications for public relations practice and research are discussed.Kirk Hallahan is assistant professor in the Department of Journalism and Technical Communication at Colorado State University.     

Hierarchical consistency of strategies in image repair theory: PR practitioners’ perceptions of effective and preferred crisis communication strategies

ABSTRACT

Drawing from image repair theory and situational crisis communication theory, this study advances crisis communication theory by analyzing nearly 800 public relations professionals’ perceptions of 15 image repair strategies. A national sample of US public relations professionals evaluated communication strategies for their effectiveness and preference for use in three crisis scenarios (accidents, product safety, and illegal activity). Compensation, corrective action, and mortification were the most highly ranked crisis response strategies, regardless of attribution of organizational responsibility or culpability, across 3 different types of accidental and preventable crises. This hierarchical consistency suggests that using communication strategies for maintaining and strengthening an organization’s relationships with its publics may be the best protection for sustaining and repairing positive reputation long-term.     

How companies cultivate relationships with publics on social network sites: Evidence from China and the United States

This study advances our understanding of relationship cultivation on social media from a cross-cultural perspective. We examined how companies use popular social network sites (SNSs) to facilitate dialogues with publics in two culturally distinct countries: China and the United States. We employed a content analysis of 50 corporate pages with 500 corporate posts and 500 user posts from each country. Overall, companies in both countries have recognized the importance of SNSs in relationship development and employed the appropriate online strategies (disclosure, information dissemination, and interactivity and involvement), but the specific tactics vary across the two markets. Furthermore, cultural differences among the types of corporate posts and public posts on SNSs indicate that culture plays a significant role in shaping the dialogue between organizations and publics in different countries. Implications for corporate relationship management practice in the global market in the digital era are discussed.     

Redefining sewardship: Examining how Fortune 100 organizations use stewardship with virtual stakeholders

Although Kelly's (2001) stewardship strategies have been discussed conceptually in public relations literature, they have not been examined through scholarly inquiry outside the fundraising realm despite repeated suggestions in relationship management literature. Through content analysis of the Fortune 100 organizations’ websites, this study examines how the four stewardship strategies are used by for-profit corporations. Results indicate that the current conceptualization of stewardship strategies for virtual behavior may be a better representation of relationship cultivation strategies than relying on the adaptation of interpersonal communication strategies to organizations.     

The Role of Public Relations With Internal Activists

Abstract

Within the context of benefits/outsourcing reviews at a small, Eastern U.S. college, this qualitiative case study examined potential internal activism, employee/organizational leadership communication strategies, and ensuing changes in internal public relations practices/structure. Findings revealed that employees implemented activist strategies in response to perceived communication gaps, prompting organizational leadership to increase solictiation of employee input and commit to ongoing, two-way symmetrical communication; structural changes in internal public relations practices and reporting relationships also resulted. Extending previous activism research findings to internal publics as activists, in this study I suggest that the prodrome of potential employee activism should inform future public relations practice.     

Operationalizing genuineness in CSR communication for public engagement on social media

Public relations professionals from global corporations have increasingly communicated corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices on social media to engage publics. Yet the link between CSR communication of global corporations, particularly with regard to the dimensions of genuineness exhibited in their communication and public engagement on social media is under-researched in China. This empirical study conceptualized and operationalized the dimensions of genuineness, which encompass providing information about different CSR themes, being responsive to publics, demonstrating empathy, and being consistent in what corporations say and do, and then investigated how global corporations engaged Chinese publics through genuine CSR communication on Sina Weibo. Enhanced public engagement outcomes of comments, likes, and shares were observed for the provision of information about the community involvement and development CSR theme alongside the use of empathy. This study informs public relations scholars and practitioners about the importance of providing information on the CSR theme of community involvement and demonstrating empathy to generate higher public engagement.     

Public relations by newly privatized businesses in Bosnia-Herzegovina

Public relations as a communication function is emerging as an important organizational process in many parts of the world. This paper examines the development of public relations in a transitional economy: Bosnia-Herzegovina. Data from 38 newly privatized organizations show the perceived potential for public relations as these organizations attempt to communicate with new publics and gain market share in a difficult business environment. The results suggest that Bosnian public relations managers understand public relations as a relationship building function but are constrained from fulfilling this function by the realities of a transitional economy.