Perceived Discrimination and Its Associations With Mental Health and Substance Use Among Asian American and Pacific Islander Undergraduate and Graduate Students

Abstract

Objectives: Racial discrimination experiences can negatively affect health. This study examined perceived discrimination and its relationship with mental health and substance use among Asian American and Pacific Islander (API) undergraduate and graduate students. Participants: A total of 113 API students aged 18–35 completed the study during February–June, 2011. Methods: The authors conducted a cross-sectional, anonymous survey online. Dependent variables included mental health (depressive, anxiety, and somatic symptoms) and substance use (alcohol problems, use of tobacco, marijuana or hashish, and other illegal drugs). Results: Students’ perceived discrimination were significantly, positively associated with depressive, anxiety, and somatic symptoms, but not with substance use. Ethnic identity moderated the relationship between perceived discrimination and somatic symptoms, but not depressive or anxiety symptoms. Conclusions: These findings suggested the negative effect of racial discrimination on API students’ mental health. The buffering effect of ethnic identity may increase resilience in these students when they face racial discrimination.     

The Injurious Relationship Between Racial Microaggressions and Physical Health: Implications for Social Work

ABSTRACT

In recent years, the study of racial microaggressions (or subtle forms of racial discrimination) has increased significantly in the social sciences, particularly highlighting the negative impact of racial microaggressions on individuals’ mental health. Despite this, there is a dearth of literature that has examined the relationship between racial microaggressions and physical and psychological health. Using two self-reported measures—the Racial and Ethnic Microaggressions Scale (REMS) and the RAND 36-Item Short Form Health Survey—with a diverse group of participants (N = 277), results suggest that racial microaggressions are significantly correlated with poorer health conditions. Furthermore, racial microaggressions were found to predict various types of physical health conditions, such as general health problems, pain, lower energy levels, and fatigue. Finally, different types of microaggressions (e.g., microaggressions in school or the workplace, environmental microaggressions) were found to be predictors of specific health issues. Implications for social work are discussed.     

The Role of Perceived Racial Discrimination in the Marriage Gap Between Black and White People

Abstract

Many explanations offered for the gap in marriage rates between Black and White people are economic and cultural. Less often considered are how racial social psychological factors influence marriage rates. In this study, we use critical race theory and the life course perspective to investigate how perceived racial discrimination impacts the likelihood of marriage for Black and White people. Data for the study are taken from the Portraits of American Life Study (N?=?678). The results of logistic regression analyses show that among people who report perceived racial discrimination, White people generally have a higher probability of being married compared to Black people. Analyses by age demonstrate that among younger adults, Black people who perceive racial discrimination are equally likely to be married as White people and have a higher probability of being married than Black people who do not report perceptions of racial discrimination. A negative influence on the odds of marriage related to perceived racial discrimination for Black people becomes clearer as respondents age. The findings highlight the importance of considering perceptions of racial discrimination to better understand the marriage gap between Black and White people across the life course.     

The (In)Significance of Race and Discrimination among Latino Youth: The Case of Depressive Symptoms

Abstract

Despite the growing population of Latinos in the United States, there is little research that explores how discrimination affects the mental health of Latino youth along racial lines. In this paper we ask two closely related questions. First, do black Latino youth have higher or lower symptoms of depression than nonblack Latinos? Second, is the relationship between race and depression among Latino youth buffered by discrimination stress? Results from the Transitions Study show that black Latino youth have significantly higher symptoms of depression than nonblack Latinos. The relationship between race and depression depends on daily—but not on lifetime—experiences of discrimination. The combined effect of race and discrimination holds in the face of a wide range of measures of stress, including major lifetime events, recent life events, and chronic stressors. These findings encourage future research that considers the mental health effects of racial variation among Latinos.     

Everyday discrimination among formerly homeless persons in permanent supportive housing

ABSTRACT

Experiences of discrimination are associated with poor health and are particularly common among persons experiencing homelessness. Permanent supportive housing (PSH) provides a foundation for improved well-being among persons with homelessness histories, but research on discrimination among this population is limited. We examined changes in experiences of, and perceived reasons for, everyday discrimination when persons moved into PSH. 421 adults in Los Angeles County completed baseline (pre-housing), 3-, 6- or 12-month post-housing structured interviews. Generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) examined change in discrimination outcomes, controlling for demographic characteristics. Everyday discrimination experiences decreased significantly when persons moved from homelessness into PSH, and remained consistently lower across the first year in PSH. Reports of homelessness/poverty, race/ethnicity, and neighborhood as reasons for discrimination also decreased from baseline levels. PSH may offer respite from everyday discrimination, but the persistence of discrimination and particularly racism in society requires structural solutions addressing implicit bias and systemic inequities.     

Body image,self-esteem,and behavioral risk for chronic disease among college students: Additional evidence for integrated prevention

Abstract

Objective: To examine associations between two body image constructs (body appreciation and body satisfaction) and five health behaviors (diet, physical activity, weight management, tobacco exposure, and alcohol intake) associated with risk for chronic disease, controlling for self-esteem. Participants: Three hundred and forty-four college students enrolled at a large, public university in the southeastern US. Methods: Students completed an online survey composed of measures of body appreciation, body satisfaction, self-esteem, and frequency of engagement in preventive health behaviors. Hierarchical linear regression models were used to assess relationships between constructs. Results: Body appreciation, but not body satisfaction or self-esteem, significantly and positively predicted engagement in diet-, physical activity-, and weight-related health behaviors. No associations were found for substance use outcomes. Conclusions: Results illuminate health risks among college students and provide additional evidence to support the development of holistic preventive interventions that simultaneously address aspects of mental and physical health among college students.     

Shift-and-persist coping and health among rural African American adolescents

This study examines whether shift-and-persist coping, a coping strategy defined by accepting challenges and remaining hopeful for the future, is associated with psychosocial and physical health and/or moderates the effects of contextual stress (i.e., racial discrimination, financial strain) on health among African American adolescents living in the rural Southeastern United States. Participants (N = 299, 56% boys, M_age = 12.91) completed measures of shift-and-persist coping, contextual stress, and psychosocial and physical health. Shift-and-persist coping was generally associated with better health but did not buffer the effects of contextual stress. Results suggest that shift-and-persist coping may serve as a source of resilience among African American adolescents living in a context where many experience heightened contextual stress.     

Examining Discrimination,Ethnic‐Racial Identity Status,and Youth Public Regard Among Black,Latino, and White Adolescents

How positively adolescents believe others feel about their ethnic‐racial group (i.e., public regard) is an important part of their ethnic‐racial identity (ERI), which is likely informed by contextual and individual factors. Using cluster analyses to generate ERI statuses among Black, Latino, and White adolescents (n = 1,378), we found that associations between peer versus adult discrimination and public regard varied across ERI status and ethnic‐racial group. However, among all adolescents, an achieved ERI (i.e., having explored ethnicity‐race and having a clear sense about its personal meaning) buffered the negative association between adult discrimination and public regard, but not between peer discrimination and public regard. Implications for understanding the interplay between contextual and individual factors for public regard are discussed.     

An Examination of Factors Affecting Perception of Workplace Discrimination

This study investigates perceptions of workplace discrimination among racial minorities in Canada. Specifically, the study examines how objective experiences of disadvantage and expectations for equity influence racial minorities’ perceptions of discrimination. The results indicate that while both of these factors affect perceptions of discrimination, expectations for equity may be especially important. Although new immigrants are among the most disadvantaged groups in the Canadian labor market, they are less likely to perceive discrimination than longer term immigrants, who may have higher expectations for equitable treatment. Education also increases the perception of discrimination among immigrants, perhaps due to the higher expectations of educated immigrants. Lastly, objective income inequity is not found to be related to perceived discrimination.

Lifetime exposure to abuse,current stressors,and health in federally qualified health center patients

ABSTRACT

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the impacts of lifetime exposure to abuse and current stressors on health, an integrative concept of physical, mental and social health, among patients of a Federally Qualified Health Center.

Method: The sample included 1,055 patients (male: N = 346; female: N = 709) who were at least 18 years of age and completed an assessment on their first visit between January 2015 and March 2017 at a Federally Qualified Health Center. The assessment contained subscales of the DUKE Health Profile measuring physical, mental, and social health; four questions assessing lifetime exposure to abuse; and a relational and socioeconomic stressor checklist.

Results: Results from structural equation modeling analyses showed that for both male and female groups, lifetime exposure to abuse, relational stressors and socioeconomic-related stressors were strongly associated with health. In the male group, socioeconomic-related stressors were the strongest predictor of health, while in the female group, lifetime exposure to abuse was the strongest predictor of health.

Conclusions: Understanding the relationships between health and the combined factors of a lifetime exposure to abuse, relational stressors, and socioeconomic stressors can provide insight to patient care professionals who treat patients in lower income, underserved communities. Ecological Systems Theory provides a framework to plan interventions or to prevent potential negative outcomes associated with these stressors.     

The Impact of Work and Volunteer Hours on the Health of Undergraduate Students

Abstract

Objective: To examine the impact of work and volunteer hours on 4 health issues among undergraduate college students. Participants: Full-time undergraduate students (N = 70,068) enrolled at 129 institutions who participated in the Spring 2011 American College Health Association–National College Health Assessment II survey. Methods: Multiple linear regression and binary logistic regression were used to examine work and volunteer hour impact on depression, feelings of being overwhelmed, sleep, and physical activity. Results: The impact of work and volunteer hours was inconsistent among the health outcomes. Increased work hours tended to negatively affect sleep and increase feelings of being overwhelmed. Students who volunteered were more likely to meet physical activity guidelines, and those who volunteered 1 to 9 hours per week reported less depression. Conclusions: College health professionals should consider integrating discussion of students' employment and volunteering and their intersection with health outcomes into clinical visits, programming, and other services.     

Racial/ethnic disparities in US college students’ experience: Discrimination as an impediment to academic performance

ABSTRACT

Objective and Participants: Using data from 69,722 US undergraduates participating in the spring 2015 National College Health Assessment, we examine racial/ethnic differences in students’ experience of discrimination. Method: Logistic regression predicted the experience of discrimination and its reported negative effect on academics. Additional models examined the effect of attending a Minority Serving Institution (MSI). Results: Discrimination was experienced by 5–15% of students, with all racial/ethnic minority groups examined- including Black, Hispanic, Asian, AI/NA/NA, and Multiracial students- more likely to report discrimination relative to White students. Of students who experienced discrimination, 15–25% reported it had negatively impacted their academic performance, with Hispanic and Asian students more likely to report negative impacts relative to White students. Attending an MSI was associated with decreased experiences of discrimination. Conclusion: Students from racial/ethnic minority backgrounds are disproportionately affected by discrimination, with negative impacts for academic performance that are particularly marked for Hispanic and Asian students.     

Experience of Racism as a Correlate of Developmental and Health Outcomes Among Urban Adolescent Mental Health Clients

Summary

Correlates of race/ethnicity and perceived racism among 760 urban, predominantly Hispanic/Latino and African-American, adolescent mental health clients were investigated using an exploratory, clinical data-mining approach. All racial/ethnic groups reported substantial rates of racism, ranging from 80.0% for Asian/Pacific Islanders to 32.4% for Hispanic/Latinos. Racism was associated with significantly elevated environmental risk (e.g., violence, sexual abuse or assault, exposure to drug use), behavioral risk (e.g., drug use) and worry (e.g., worry about hurting self or others, worry about doing dangerous things). Overall, racism was significantly associated with more negative health and well-being outcomes than ability to get a gun, sexual orientation, and being enrolled in school. The authors conclude that experience of racism should be routinely assessed at intake to mental health services along with traumatic experiences such as physical or sexual abuse.     

Asian American Identification with African Americans,Latinos, and Whites: The Roles of Discrimination and Self-Identified Skin Tone

ABSTRACT

Using a sample of up to 1,208 Asian Americans, we examine the effects of skin tone on perceived commonality with African Americans, Latinos, and whites. Overall, we find that Asian Americans are more likely to identify with whites than with African Americans or Latinos. When we account for skin tone, we find that Asian Americans with a medium skin tone experience increased odds of perceiving a commonality with African Americans and Latinos. While we expected the relationship between skin tone and perceived commonality to be mediated by experiences of discrimination, this was not the case. We conclude that Asian Americans occupy a position toward the top of the black-white binary and the oppressive racial hierarchy that exists within the United States. Like previous scholars, we suggest that Asian Americans can use their relative standing to disrupt the oppressive racial hierarchy. However, we recognize that whites, holding a position at the top of the racial hierarchy, must also be responsible for dismantling it.     

Racial Identity Matters: The Relationship between Racial Discrimination and Psychological Functioning in African American Adolescents

This study examines the interrelationships among racial discrimination, racial identity, and psychological functioning in a sample of 314 African American adolescents. Racial discrimination was associated with lower levels of psychological functioning as measured by perceived stress, depressive symptomatology, and psychological well‐being. Although individuals who believe that other groups hold more negative attitudes toward African Americans (low public regard) were at greater risk for experiencing racial discrimination, low public regard beliefs also buffered the impact of racial discrimination on psychological functioning. More positive attitudes about African Americans were also associated with more positive psychological functioning. The results further illustrate the utility of a multidimensional framework for understanding the role of racial identity in the relationship between racial discrimination and psychological outcomes among African American adolescents.     

The Benefits of Dispositional Mindfulness in Physical Health: A Longitudinal Study of Female College Students

Abstract

Objective: This article examines the relationship between dispositional mindfulness, health behaviors (eg, sleep, eating, and exercise), and physical health. Participants: Participants included 441 college women. Methods: Women completed self-report surveys at the beginning and end of a 10-week academic quarter. The study was conducted over 5 academic quarters from fall 2008 to fall 2010. Results: Findings indicated that higher levels of dispositional mindfulness were related to healthier eating practices, better quality of sleep, and better physical health. Dispositional mindfulness contributed to better physical health even after controlling for traditional health habits. Finally, bidirectional mediational relationships were found between healthy eating and dispositional mindfulness as well as between sleep quality and dispositional mindfulness when physical health was the outcome variable. Conclusions: Findings suggest that incorporating mindfulness training into programming on college campuses may be beneficial, as results indicate that dispositional mindfulness is related to positive physical health among college students.     

Mental health literacy,stigma, and help-seeking behaviors among male college students

Objective: Mental health literacy (MHL) is low in college-aged men potentially resulting in impaired mental wellbeing. This study assessed MHL, psychosocial determinants, and help-seeking behaviors among male university students. Participants: Male undergraduate and graduate students were surveyed in Spring 2017 (n = 1,242) at a large southeastern university in the United States. Methods: Preexisting validated scales for MHL, psychosocial determinants, and help-seeking intention were used in measurement and demographic variables were collected. T-tests and one-way ANOVA were performed to measure differences between groups. Results: Participants showed low scores for all constructs with statistically significant differences between undergraduate and graduate students, as well as between races and major classifications. Undergraduate men had moderate MHL and low intentions to seek professional care. Conclusions: Interventions focusing on increasing mental health knowledge and improving beliefs can improve MHL among male college students. Further, interventions should be tailored for racial groups and major classifications.     

Changes in the association between social housing tenure and child outcomes across cohorts: comparing the millennium and British cohort studies

ABSTRACT

In recent decades, social housing in the UK has increasingly become the preserve of the poorest in society. This paper is the first to investigate how the child outcome penalties associated with social housing tenure have changed over time across UK cohorts. I compare the differences in the cognitive, mental health, and physical health outcomes of children in social housing with children in non-social housing and evaluate whether these tenure differences have changed between the 1970 British Cohort Study (BCS) and the 2000 Millennium Cohort Study (MCS). I find that in both cohorts, children in social housing exhibit worse outcomes across all three dimensions (cognitive, mental health, and physical health) than children in non-social housing. For cognitive and physical health outcomes, however, the tenure difference has narrowed between the two cohorts, while for mental health outcomes, the tenure difference has widened. These results suggest that children have experienced a relative worsening in their mental health outcomes across cohorts, but also a relative improvement in both their cognitive and physical health outcomes. The findings suggest that policies aimed at reducing tenure inequalities in child outcomes should focus on mental health development in the early years.     

Intergenerational Experiences of Discrimination in Chinese American Families: Influences of Socialization and Stress

In this longitudinal study, we investigated the mechanisms by which Chinese American parents' experiences of discrimination influenced their adolescents' ethnicity‐related stressors (i.e., cultural misfit, discrimination, attitudes toward education). We focused on whether parents' ethnic‐racial socialization practices and perpetual foreigner stress moderated or mediated this relationship. Participants were 444 Chinese American families. Results indicated no evidence of moderation, but we observed support for mediation. Parental experiences of discrimination were associated with more ethnic‐racial socialization practices and greater parental perpetual foreigner stress. More ethnic‐racial socialization was related to greater cultural misfit in adolescents, whereas more perpetual foreigner stress was related to adolescents' poorer attitudes toward education and more reported discrimination. Relationships between mediators and outcomes were stronger for fathers than for mothers.     

Patterns of Racial Socialization and Psychological Adjustment: Can Parental Communications About Race Reduce the Impact of Racial Discrimination?

This study uses two waves of data to examine the relations among racial discrimination experiences, patterns of racial socialization practices, and psychological adjustment in a sample of 361 African American adolescents. Using latent class analyses, we identified four patterns of child‐reported racial socialization experiences: Moderate Positive, High Positive, Low Frequency, and Moderate Negative. Experiencing racial discrimination was associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms, more perceived stress, and lower levels of well‐being. On average, adolescents who experienced High Positive patterns of racial socialization reported the most positive psychological adjustment outcomes, while adolescents in the Low Frequency and Moderate Negative clusters reported the least favorable outcomes. Results suggest that High Positive racial socialization buffers the negative effects of racial discrimination on adolescents' perceived stress and problem behaviors. Together, the findings suggest that various patterns of racial socialization practices serve as risk, compensatory, and protective factors in African American adolescent psychological adjustment.