The political and socioeconomic context of legal and illegal Mexican migration to the United States (1942-1984)

The US manpower shortage in industry and agriculture during World War II, combined with Mexico's burden of an excess number of unemployed laborers, provided the basis for serious labor negotiations between the US and Mexico. The result was the Bracero Agreement of 1942, a bilateral agreement involving annual quotas for the temporary hiring of Mexican braceros. On the surface the program worked well. However, there were points of contention between the 2 countries: 1) in opposition to Mexico's policy of placing recruitment centers in the interior of the country, US policy called for placing the centers near the border, to reduce transportation costs; 2) Texas, which received no braceros because of racial discrimination, relied upon illegal aliens for manual labor; 3) Texas flagrantly violated a 1948 agreement when the Border Patrol welcomed aliens across the river despite Mexican officials' threats to close the border; 4) legal braceros were confronted with competition from illegals who were willing to work for a lower wage; 5) in 1954, the Border patrol physically helped aliens across the border, while Mexican policy were physically restraining them; 6) with the conclusion of a new Bracero agreement in March 1954, illegal aliens were no longer needed, so more than 1 million were apprehended and deported to Mexico's interior. The termination of the Bracero Program in 1964 gave new impetus to illegal trafficking and the number of illegals apprehended began to increase steadily in 1965. The migration flow after 1964 was influenced by the following socioeconomic conditions in Mexico: 1) unemployment, 2) very large disparities in income distribution, 3) a discrimination of the rural sector in favor of the urban in the allocation of government funds, and 4) a dependency on foreign capital and technology. Also, it was cheap labor for the US. Neither the US nor Mexico has adopted policies related to either economic development or immigration that would systematically curtail or regulate the flow of Mexican migrants to the US. However, conflicting pressures limit the policy-making process. President Carter was limited in his policy options by the needs of large-scale commercial agriculture. President Reagan's idea of a guest-worker program did not develop into legislation. Mexico's Lopez Portillo administration counted on migration to the US as a substitute for redistributive land reform in its handling of rural political pressures; the migratory flow functioned as an "escape valve" helping to dilute the effects of rapid demographic increase and preserving the status quo.     

The evolution of French immigration policy after May 1981

Changes and continuities in French immigration policies, following the assumption of power by the socialist government in 1981, are described. Attention is focused on the political implications of immigration and on the role of immigrants in French politics. Efforts to restrict immigration to France were initiated in 1931, but clandestine immigration, especially from Portugal, remained largely unchecked for 4 decades. In the early 1970s, stricter enforcement measures were adopted, but these measures met with considerable international and national opposition. In 1977, the government altered its approach to immigration by offering financial aid to help illegal migrants return to their countries of origin. These efforts met with little success, and in 1980 the government initiated measures to promote the integration of immigrants into French society. The socialistic government basically adhered to the immigration policies of the preceding government. The current government seeks: 1) to stop further illegal immigration through the intensification of border controls, 2) to grant amnesty to illegal aliens who currently reside in the country and who meet certain employment requirements, 3) to penalize employers who hire illegal aliens or who contract to bring illegal aliens into the country, and 4) to improve living conditions for legal immigrants. The politicalization of immigration has increased in recent years. Current issues center on the human and political rights of migrants and on arbitary administrative efforts to control immigration. It was expected that migrants would acquire political rights after the 1981 election; however, this expectation was not realized, and the political status of immigrants remains an unsettled issue. Consequently migrants have become pawns in the political struggle between different groups in the population both at the national and the local level. Immigration threatens to become an explosive issue. At the same time, migrants themselves are playing an increasingly prominent role in political activities, such as rent strikes and protest movements.     

Endorsement of Criminal Behavior Amongst Offenders: Implications for DSM-5 Gambling Disorder

The fifth edition of the diagnostic and statistical manual (DSM) has changed the scoring threshold for a gambling disorder (GD) from five criteria to four and eliminated the illegal acts criterion. The impact of these changes was examined with data from a correctional population (N = 676) in Ontario, Canada. The offenders completed a self-report survey that included the Canadian problem gambling index, the South Oaks Gambling Screen and the DSM-IV criteria. Changing the threshold from 5 to 4 improved the convergent validity for GD and resulted in an increase in the percentage of offenders diagnosed with a GD from 7.4 to 10.2 %. The results also indicate that the illegal acts criterion contributes to the convergent validity of GD. The evidence supports the change in the threshold from five to four, but also reinforces the importance of examining illegal acts when dealing with an offender population. The incorporation of illegal acts into the “lying to others” criteria appears to make up, to some extent, for the removal of the illegal acts criterion.     

IMPLICATIONS OF IMMIGRATION POLICIES FOR THE U.S. FARM SECTOR AND WORKFORCE

We develop a theoretical model using migration and trade theory to examine the effects of domestic and border enforcement policies on unauthorized workers and the U.S. agricultural sector. The theoretical results show that heightened immigration policies increase the illegal farm wage rate, and reduce the employment of unauthorized farm workers and exports. The empirical analysis show that increased domestic enforcements curtail the number of undocumented farm workers by an average of 8,947 and commodity exports to Mexico by an average of $180 million. The tighter border control curbs illegal farm workers by 8,147 and reduces farm exports by $181 million. (JEL F160)     

Migration from Jamaica in the 1970s: political protest or economic pull?

This article discusses the high rates of out-migration from Jamaica in the late 1970s. The principal receiving countries of Jamaican migrants since World War II have been in the UK, the US, and Canada. Average yearly out-migration from Jamaica between 1964 and 1984 stands at 20,736. Since the 1950s 1) the actual number of migrants from Jamaica to the UK has decreased considerably with the introduction of prohibitive legislation in 1962, 2) the "slack" has been taken by the US and Canada, and 3) migration to the US dipped slightly in the early to mid 1970s, yet increases during those years of Jamaicans migrating to Canada adequately compensated for any loss of an outlet to the US. The "brain drain" forms a chronic feature of the Jamaican economy--a permanent sapping process of much needed labor--not simply an occasional event capable of being explained primarily by the political position of a particular politician. The increases in the migration rates of professional, technical, administrative, and managerial workers, and skilled craftsmen in 1977 and 1978 did not herald a new event; high rates of migration for these categories of workers have existed for several years. The volume and the composition of the actual Jamaican migrant population are decided in the main by legislation in other parts of the world. Although Jamaica's population problem has been eased over the years by as much as 50% of the country's natural increase being removed by migration, many of those who left were of the type whose skills might have contributed to the national economy--and in ways that might have created employment for others. The economic pull of loss of skilled labor is a permanent feature; legislative pull is the key.     

Substance Use Among Rural African American Adolescents: Identifying Risk and Protective Factors

Substance use continues to be a significant problem among youth in our society, particularly in rural communities. The purpose of the current study was to identify the possible risk and protective factors that may be affecting the rates of alcohol and illegal drug use among a population of African American adolescents living in a rural, southern community. The following were identified as possible risk factors: (1) Being an older adolescent (15 years of age or older); (2) Spending afternoons after school with friends; (3) Having friends or family members who use alcohol or illegal drugs; (4) Being raised by non-family members; and (5) Having plans to enter military after high school. The following characteristics were associated with less alcohol and illegal drug use, and were identified as possible protective factors: (1) Being raised by parent(s) or other family members; (2) Spending afternoons after school with parents; (3) Having parents who talk to youth about dangers of drug and alcohol use; (4) Having parents who disapprove of their child using drugs or alcohol; (5) Being involved in extra-curricular church-related activities; and (6) Having plans to work, or attend college or technical school after high school. Characteristics that have been associated with drug and alcohol in previous research that were not associated with use in the current study include: (1) Being male; (2) Peer pressure to use alcohol or illegal drugs; (3) Grades in school; and (4) Involvement in extra-curricular activities. Implications for developing effective community programs aimed at reducing substance use among our youth are discussed.     

Negotiating Sustainability: Climate Change Framing in the Communications,Energy and Paperworkers Union

Environmental problems are often reduced to a catch‐22 that portrays sustainability‐oriented policies as disastrous for resource sector workers. Despite efforts by many industry leaders to frame climate change in “jobs versus environment” terms, the Communications, Energy and Paperworkers Union of Canada (CEP) has supported ambitious greenhouse gas reduction policies. Using interviews with union members and staff, this study examines CEP's climate change framing. It finds that CEP extended the environmental justice master frame to define its response to climate change, neutralize anti‐Kyoto rhetoric, and work with the environmental movement. CEP's framing was accomplished through negotiation processes that continue to unfold as members work out the union's positions relative to their own values, experiences, and interpretations of what is possible. These findings suggest sustainability can be understood as an emergent, localized, and contested social order, and point to “self‐negotiation” in longer‐term social change struggles as a potential area of further study.     

Physician-nurse migration to the United States: regional and health status origins in relation to legislation and policy

This article examines the origins of physicians and nurses who were admitted as permanent immigrants to the US from 1962-1979. Data are mainly from the Immigration and Naturalization Service. Countries used in the developmental analysis are only those whose population was estimated at 1 million or more as of mid-1979, encompassing 99% of the physicians and 97% of the nurses. Life expectancy at birth is the criterion used to differentiate origin countries by developmental dimension of health status. During the study period, health workers constituted about 30% of immigrants admitted to the US; of these, nurses and physicians constituted 72-82% throughout the study period. The period 1962-1979 has 4 distinct phases, marked by important legislative and/or policy changes; 1) 1962-1965, when the McCarran-Walter Act prevailed; 2) ending in 1968, the 2nd phase covers the transition mandated under the 1965 Immigration Act, which encouraged physician immigration; 3) the 3rd phase, 1969-1976, covers the transition to the 1976 Immigration and Nationality Act amendments; and 4) the 4th stage is 1977-1979. Results show that 1) under the McCarran-Walter Act, North America became the dominant physician source; 2) from 1966-1968, Asia attained dominance as the physician source and became even more predominant after 1968; 3) North America produced relatively few physicians in the early 1970s; 4) Europe produced substantially fewer physicians in the 1970s than in the 1960s; 5) South America, Africa, and Oceania were the lowest contributors of physicians; 6) during the McCarran-Walter years, North America and Europe produced almost 90% of nurses admitted into the US; 7) the 1965 Immigration Act and its aftermath resulted in Asia becoming the dominant source of nurses; 8) prior to the 1965 Immigration Act, Canada generated 20% of the aggregate number of physicians; 9) the Philippines surpassed Canada during the transition and India led after the transition; and 10) Canada supplied 30% of the nurses up through the transition, with the Philippines in the lead 1969-1979. Low health status countries were a relatively minor nurse source. Health status at the origin was a far less significant determinant of physician immigration than that of nurses. English language high and low health status country groups produced substantially more physician and nurse immigrants that their corresponding non-English language counterparts. The US attracted more physicians and nurses from less developed countries than more developed countries after 1968.     

Mexican Migration for Dummies: What Social Workers and the Public Need to Know

SUMMARY

Amid the derisive, post-911 political debate about border control, national security, and “illegal aliens,” nobody, not even immigrant advocates and protesters, is articulating the macro-level, global economic root cause of undocumented labor migration to America. In simple terms, this essay describes how the contradictory policies of an open border for trade (i.e., NAFTA) and a closed border for immigration result in a predictable undocumented migration bridge between the U.S. and Mexico that must be sensibly regulated for the good of neighboring countries that now share formally integrated economies, yet informally integrated populations. Implications for policy and immigrant serving social workers and other human service providers are discussed.     

Policies on and Experiences of Foreign Domestic Workers in Canada

This paper reviews studies of government policies on, and the experiences of, foreign domestic workers in Canada. It provides an overview of changes in Canadian policies regulating foreign domestic workers and in their demographic composition in Canada over recent decades. It identifies three analytical themes in studies about their experiences such as: (1) conceptualizing citizenship in policy-making as contested; (2) documenting the inherently exploitative nature of the programme; and (3) examining the intersectionality of class, race, and gender. The review is guided by feminist scholarship on reproductive labour in the household. It identifies unaddressed issues and proposes future directions for studies of foreign domestic workers in Canada.     

Temporary and illegal labour migration: the Israeli experience

In recent years, Israel has become a major recipient of documented and undocumented temporary labour migrants from many countries outside the Middle East region. The purposes of this article are to describe Israel's experience of temporary labour migration and its concomitant, illegal labour migration; and also to explore what her policies on temporary labour migration indicate about the nature of the policy-making process in this policy domain in Israel.
To these ends the article traces the evolution of temporary labour migration – legal and illegal – and recent policy initiatives of the Israeli government. It then considers some of the major conceptions of the policy-making process found in public policy literature. The article concludes by pointing to the uniqueness of Israel's experience of temporary labour migration and to the fact that her policies have been overwhelmingly reactive – inadequately considered, ill-conceived, ambivalent in relation to their ultimate purpose and, in the course of implementation, vulnerable to "privatization" (being taken over by vested interest groups).
Analysis of the most recent policy initiatives designed to reduce the number of legal labour migrants and address the problem of illegal labour migrants, reflect a policy-making process that is not followed by commensurate action.     

Adjustment of immigrants in Canada: methodological possibilities and its implications

Progress in research on the adaptation of immigrants depends on the resolution of both its methodological and empirical aspects. Adaptation can be defined in operational terms as "partaking in the life of the country productively and to one's advantage." The society to which immigrants need to adapt is usually highly developed. Factors that influence immigrants' adaptation are 1) demographic factors, 2) economic factors, 3) social factors, 4) the immigration policy of the country of destination, and 5) the motives for immigration combined with information on the country of destination. 3 models analyze the socioeconomic adaption of immigrants: 1) the assimilation model (the period of immigration is the most important determinant of immigrants' adjustment); 2) the ethnic stratification model (status at entry to the receiving country differs for different ethnic groups); 3) the structural differences model (demographic, economic, and social characteristics of immigrants interact and may influence the adaptation process). The author examines the adjustment process of immigrants to Canada on the assumption that the age of immigrants at the moment of arrival in Canada plays the most important role in adaptation. The following are factors in the adaptation process in order of importance: 1) person's age at the moment of arrival (PAMA) in Canada, 2) duration of residence in Canada, and 3) membership in an ethnic group. The immigrant population is stratified by cohorts defined according to these factors. The author divides nonimmigrant cohorts into 4 stages: 1) exploration (age 24 and under), 2) stabilization (age 25-44), 3) mature (45-59), and 4) reconciliation stage (age 60 and over). He further defines 6 cohorts of immigrants: 1) preschool and school population (early exploration stage, 0-16); 2) vocational training, university, and 1st stage of family formation (terminal period of exploration stage, age 17-24); 3) prime family formation period and 1st stage of work experience (1st period of professional stabilization stage, age 25-34); 4) terminal period of family and household formation and prime period of professional stabilization (2nd period of professional stabilization stage, age 35-44); 5) older worker population (mature stage, age 45-59); 6) workers before retirement and elderly population (reconciliation stage in professional life, age 60 and over). By defining immigrant subpopulations using both the PAMA and "ethnicity" factors as the criteria, one can examine the roots of the observed variation across subpopulations from both structural and cultural points of view.     

Rational Migration Policy Should Tolerate Non-zero Illegal Migration Flows: Lessons from Modelling the Market for Illegal Migration

The debate on the immigration policies in OECD countries has turned its attention towards illegal migrants. Given that migration flows are determined by immigration laws, the probability of potential detection, penalties for unauthorized migrants and their employers, and income differences between sending and receiving countries, this paper presents a new approach to the problem of illegal migration, grounded on the economic theory of illegal behaviour. The framework considers the interaction of potential migrants, citizens, employers, and the government. After introducing the supply function of illegal migration and its determinants, the trade-off between social costs and benefits of preventing and combating illegal migration is demonstrated. This trade-off results in an optimal level of migration larger than zero. A complete "market model" of illegal migration is offered by presentation of a demand curve of illegal migration, based on the tolerance of the society towards clandestine foreigners. Equilibrium forces predict a non-zero level of illegal migration. The rule of law of our legal systems, according to which any illegal activity has to be reduced to zero, bears the danger of producing inefficient disequilibria. A reasonable policy of wanted and unwanted migration should address the question of how to allocate scarce resources. Ignoring social optima and equilibrium forces means to abandon public resources that could be used for other public assignments, such as schooling or foreign aid, for instance, i.e., measures that could strike the problem of illegal migration at its root.     

STATE TAXES AND LEGISLATIVE TURNOVER IN THE UNITED STATES

Mounting empirical evidence suggests that term limits and, by extension, higher legislative turnover increase the overall size of government and change its spending composition. However, less is known about the turnover's impact on the composition of tax revenues. This study fills this void by exploiting exogenous variation in term limits and redistricting as instruments for legislative turnover, which is found to be positively associated with most state taxes except for the corporate income tax. We hypothesize that the negative association between legislative turnover and corporate income taxes might be influenced by a higher propensity of business owners to enter term-limited state legislatures. (JEL H7, H3)     

Times of Transition: Elder Abuse and Neglect in Israel

ABSTRACT

The present paper addresses the advancement of research, policies, legislation, and practice experiences designed to deal with the phenomenon of elder abuse and neglect in Israel in times of transition. The paper presents a short overview of the demographic scene, reflecting population characteristics and needs that impact care giving as well as elder abuse and neglect. The developments of scientific knowledge and its accumulation, especially the empirical data from the first national survey on elder abuse and neglect are discussed. Further, legislative developments relating to four generational laws and the advancement of policies and innovative practice experiences are described and analyzed. Finally, future challenges in the field are identified.     

Employment after spinal cord injury: the impact of government policies in Canada

The British Columbia Paraplegic Association (BCPA) sought a research partnership to evaluate where its activities should be focused. A survey of members with disabilities of the BCPA included questions on employment and identified three priorities related to employment. These were the need for assistance in finding appropriate work, the impact of policies of government and insurance agencies, and attitudes of employers. This paper examines the social and political environment related to employment following spinal cord injury in British Columbia, Canada. There is no coherent set of goals underlying government employment and income programs in Canada. Incremental development of particular employment and income programs during the 20th century led to a patchwork of policies and programs, which deal with people differently according to the cause of their disability. Federal and provincial governments have attempted to educate employers and reduce barriers to employment of those with disabilities by focusing on anti-discrimination legislation and individual rights (e.g. the Employment Equity Act and the Canadian Human Rights Act). However, people with disabilities face non-accommodating environments, inadequate income support, lack of opportunities and little political influence which stem from an unfair distribution of societal resources, not from discrimination. Joint efforts of the BCPA and other disability organizations are likely to have the most impact on legislative changes.     

No Limits for Migration after 1992? The Lessons of the Past and a Reconnaissance of the Future*

This article discusses the effects of and reactions to the free movement of labor within the 6 states of the European Community (EEC) since its beginning in 1968. A summary of the movements shows that 1) large flows from "underdeveloped areas" within the community to the "more developed ones" have not occurred, 2) an increase in the exchanges of nationals within the EEC and therefore also between highly developed areas has occurred, and 2) strong indications exist that the extent of this exchange is primarily linked to demand and to the economic climate. Those who had forecast doom had made the following errors: 1) many based their forecasts on fears and selective perceptions linked to them, 2), many were insufficiently aware of the rules governing free movement and the way they operate, and 3) they had too little knowledge of the situation in the areas assumed to provide the push. 3 factors important for forecasting migration are 1) studies of migration almost always use only 1 level of analysis, 2) one must take into account the role of national governments, and of legislation and regulations affecting migration and migrants, and 3) prognoses should be made for each category of migrants separately. The authors formulate assumptions on both the macro and the micro level for each category of migrants: 1) migration of individual workers will be very dependent upon changes in the economic situation; 2) an increase in movements of staff within international business organizations will occur 3) migration of enterpreneurs will increase once the legal and practical impediments disappear, 4) student migration and that of pensioners and persons with private incomes will increase if practical and legal impediments are removed, 5) the European Community does not and will not recognize the existence of refugees who are nationals of 1 of its member states, and 6) illegal migrants will be few. Predicted migration of non-community nationals to European Community member states includes 1) immigration of skilled migrant workers, in the event of an economic boom, is more likely than immigration of unskilled workers; 2) the number of people claiming refugee status and asylum will grow, if there are no opportunities available for a refugee elsewhere; and 3) developments in the labor market influence both the choice of potential illegal immigrants and the severity of any policy of prosecuting employers of illegal labor.     

Establishing Laws and Policies on Parent to Child Violence in Finland 1965–1983

This study explores perceptions of parent to child violence, the arguments for imposing legal regulation, and the intended objectives of the legislative process that led to a ban in Finland in 1983. This qualitative policy analysis examines policy documents alongside expert interviews with professional on the legislative process. The example of Finland shows that a significant change in attitudes and decreased levels of violence towards children can be achieved without the threat of legal punishment, even without specific intervention policies. However, the study emphasises the importance of establishing clear practices alongside altering legislation which has been inadequate in Finland.     

Irregular migration: policy responses in Africa and Asia

This article reviews population policies designed to curb or respond to irregular migration flows, with particular emphasis on policies adopted by governments in Africa and Asia. An overview of policies on the world level indicates a number of similarities that transcend regional lines and levels of development. Policy decisions are often influenced by the nature and attributes of the undocumented migrant population and by the current social, economic, and political situation in the receiving country. Governments are frequently more tolerant of migrants who possess needed skills or settle in sparsely populated areas that have manpower shortages. Between the 2 policy extremes of amnesty and deportation, several measures have been employed, including stricter border controls, stringent visa requirements, work permit systems, and efforts to ensure that migrants do not violate the conditions of their admission. In many cases, several policy measures are used simultaneously. Ensuring the observance of appropriate measures for the recruitment of migrant workers, their departure from the home country, and placement in employment in the country of immigration is widely regarded as the best way to prevent illegal movements of workers. Temporary worker programs are sometimes advocated to provide legal channels for potential migrants. At the national level, institutions that deal with irregular migrants tend to be limited in their mandate to a law enforcement role. In Africa, most governments have recently strengthened border and documentary controls and attempted to regulate migration through the labor market. In many cases, mass expulsions have been necessary as a result of laissez-faire policies. In Asia, on the other hand, mass deportation has been less common as a result of more stringent security measures and documentary controls. In both countries, policies have been basically reactive in response to rapidly changing political and economic conditions. Needed is an international convention to serve as a guideline for the humanitarian treatment of undocumented workers.