Philippines: decentralized approach shows results

In the Philippines several steps have been taken to meet the challenge of increasing population growth. Commencing with the Republic Act 6365, known as the Population Act (1971) program directives focus on achieving and maintaining population levels most conducive to the national welfare. In 1978 a Special Committee was constituted by the President to review the population program. Pursuant to the Committee's findings certain changes were adopted. The thrust is now towards longterm planning to ensure a more significant and perceptible demographic impact of development programs and policies. Increasing attention is paid to regional development and spatial distribution in the country. The 1978-82 Development Plan states more clearly the interaction between population and development. The National Economic and Development Authority, the central policy and planning agency of the government, takes charge of formulation and coordinating the broader aspects of population policy and integrating population with socioeconomic plans and policies. At present the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) is implementing a project known as the Population/Development Planning and Research (PDPR) project with financial support from the UN Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA). This project promotes and facilitates the integration of the population dimension in the planning process. It does this by maintaining linkages and instituting collaborative mechanisms with the different NEDA regional offices and sectoral ministries. It also trains government planners in ways of integrating population concerns into the development plan. PDPR promotes the use of population and development research for planning purposes and policy formation. The Philippine Development Plan, 1978-82, recognized that an improvement in the level of 1 sector reinforces the performance of the other sectors. Since the establishment of the National Population Program 12 years ago, population and family planning have been successfully integrated with various development sectors, notably, labor, health, and education. Through the policies of integration, multiagency participation, and partnership of the public and private sectors, the Commission on Population uses existing development programs of government and private organizations as vehicles for family planning information and services and shares the responsibility of implementing all facets of the population program with various participating agencies in the government and private sector.     

The Population Program's Medium-Term Plan: a blueprint for welfare

The Population Program in the Philippines initially was preoccupied with the problem of fertility reduction. From 1981-85, the program will be carrying out a 5-year population plan which aims at the reduction of fertility as well as the broader goal of enhancing the well-being of the family and of society. Called the Medium Term Plan, this population plan began to evolve in January 1978 when President Marcos called for a comprehensive review of the population program in the context of the country's overall development plans. The Special Committee to Review the Philippine Population Program, worked from February to June 1978 and focused attention on the policy, program, and research components of the population program. They assessed the achievements of the program, analyzed its limitations, and recommended future policy and program thrusts. In performing its task, the committee observed the following guidelines: 1) the program must be evaluated by taking into account the overall development goals that are directly related to the population problem, 2) the program must be evaluated in its totality, 3) the concept of family planning must be redefined as family planning and welfare, 4) research must be recognized as a vital instrument for program formulation, and 5) the population program must be evaluated with an awareness of the role of financial and institutional support in its implementation. The committee's findings stressed the need to link family planning efforts with the rest of socioeconomic issues outlined in the government's 5-year development plan for 1978-82. The broad objective of the National Population Program is to reduce the population growth rate to levels that promote national welfare and individual well-being. Under the Medium Term Plan the population growth rate should be reduced from an estimated 2.3% to an estimated 2.0% in 1985. To achieve this objective, the program aims to raise the number and quality of protected couples, promote delayed marriage, promote internalization of the small family size norm, and study other development factors. 14 strategies and their objectives are outlined along with action steps.     

The Philippine population program under the Aquino administration

3 views of the Philippine Population Program under the Aquino government are presented: the first states the government's position on population programs and the next 2 criticize that position. Issued by the Commission on Population (POPCOM) in early 1987, the first statement establishes the government's stance on population programs. It explains that the 1987 Philippine Constitution reaffirms the government's commitment to the ultimate goal of the Population Program: the improvement of the quality of life in a just and humane society. The statement explains the constitutional guarantees, policy principles, and policy strategies concerning population. The next view presented is an excerpt from Alejandro N. Herrin's paper entitled "Population, Health and Education: Policy Initiatives Under the Aquino Administration." In it, Herrin explains that after 1 year of silence, POPCOM finally issued a policy statement. The statement, however, is marked by ambiguity, avoiding an explicit mention of a policy to moderate fertility. Furthermore, the statement fails to clarify the government's position on 2 basic issues: whether or not an acceptable economic and social development can be achieved within a reasonable time without a moderation of the current high fertility and population growth, and whether or not the government is justified in sponsoring a program to moderate fertility and population growth. The 3rd view presented in the document is that of Virginia A. Miralao. In her essay "Population Policies, Family Planning Programs, and Women's Reproductive Rights," Miralao explains that the current population program -- which directly affects the lives of women -- has virtually excluded women in its planning. Moreover, since Aquino came into power, the Catholic church has gained great influence and has opposed family planning programs.     

Papua New Guinea: first population policy declared

In its 2nd year after achieving political independence, Papua New Guinea declared a general population policy in October 1976, and inaugurated a population research program to guide policy formulation. Population affairs of the country, which has a population of 2.75 million, have been vested with the Ministry of Environment and Conservation. The research program will be implemented in cooperation primarily with the Institute of Applied Social and Economic Research (IASER) and the University of Papua New Guinea, as well as the Central Planning Office, Department of Public Health, Bureau of Statistics, and Office of Information, among other agencies. The priorities for research will initially fall under 5 main concerns: 1) fertility and population growth, and the causes of local differentials; 2) socioeconomic influences on growth trends; 3) interrelation between population and land resources; 4) internal migration; and 5) individual attitudes regarding family planning practice. The research program is designed to become an integral part of national development planning. However, the Government has declared that both policy and research programs must concur with the needs and desires of the people, to pave the way for successful implementation of development plans.     

4th International Population Conference: drawing the community into population programs

Summarizes the deliberations and recommendations of the (1978) 4th International Population Conference: "Expanding Rural and Urban Community Participation in Population Programs," sponsored by the World Population Society and the Population Center Foundation, and held in the Philippines. The 2 main concerns were finding ways of involving people in rural villages and urban communities in population programs, and fostering the sharing of ideas and experiences for the benefit of program administrators. Topics covered by the conference and reviewed here were organization and action for community participation; relating population and family planning to other services and the relevant personnel; role of women and women's organizations; involvement of youth; distribution of family planning information, techniques, and supplies; and new ideas and approaches. The resolutions of the delegates and other recommendations are also reviewed.     

The International Parliamentary Assembly on Population and Development held in Mexico City

The International Parliamentary Assmebly on Population and Development took place on August 15-16, 1984, with the participation of more than 300 parliamentarians from 60 countries. The aim was to promote an exchange of views on population programs and policies among parliamentarians, and to support the recommendations adopted by the UN International Conference on Population. The assembly held discussion in 3 subcommittees on the subjects of 1) policies of population and development; 2) the legal and social status of women; and 3) the improvement of family planning service. On population policy, parliamentarians generally agreed that policy formulation is the prerogative of each sovereign country, stressing that such policies and programs should be integrated with social and economic development. The developing countries stronly demanded that a new international economic order be established and international aid increased to help them in solving the popultion problem. Concerning the status of women, the assembly unanimously agreed that both men and women should not only be legally equal, but should also have de facto equality for employment, education and social life. Attention should be given particularly to the rights and status of rural women. Examples of how the status of Chinese women has improved were offered by Chinese representative and were appreciated by the assembly. On improving family planning services, participants urged provision of information about birth control to people of marriageable age and of access to contraceptives to eligible couples; moreover, they advocated the strengthening of medical care for women and children and the lowering of infant and maternal mortality rates. Dr. Qian Xinzhong described the priorities and goals of family planning programs in China. Finally, the assembly unanimously adopted the "Action Plan," whose contents embody independence, respect for national sovereignty, and the spirit of cooperation and conformity to the interest of the international community, particularly the developing nations.     

1980 ASEAN programme roundup: a model in the making

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) experts and heads of national population programs held their 4th meeting in Singapore from November 24-28, 1980. Program heads resolved to take steps to link their national activities in the population field with those of the ASEAN Population Program and carry out studies and a joint programming exercise in 1981. Progress reports on the following Phase 1 projects were given: 1) integration of population and rural development policies and programs in ASEAN countries including Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand; 2) development of an inter-country modular training program for personnel in population and rural development; 3) multi-media support for population programs in the context of rural development in ASEAN countries; 4) utilization of research findings in population and family planning for policy formulation and program management in ASEAN countries; and 5) migration in relation to rural development. Phase 2 projects approved by ASEAN country participants were also discussed: 1) institutional development and exchange of personnel, 2) women in development, 3) developing and strengthening national population information systems and networks in ASEAN countries, 4) population and development dynamics and the man/resource balance, 5) studies on health and family planning in ASEAN countries, 6) population migration movement and development, and 7) development of ASEAN social indicators.     

Decentralizing population education research

Population education research will now be conducted at the regional, division, and local levels. It is expected that this decentralization will solve problems faced by population education teachers and supervisors in the field and help to formulate curricula suitable to local needs. It will also mean changes in the implementation of the research activities of the Department of Education and Culture-Population Education Program. Since its creation in 1972 the Population Education Program of the Research Unit has been conducting research studies on a centralized basis, seeking out research leads, conducting studies to determine the content and methodology of program curriculum, and assessing the effectiveness of training programs. During the past 3 years the Research Unit has also made significant progress in monitoring the program's activities - determining problems and needs, making recommendations on the basis of findings, and initiating action on such recommendations. 1 recommendation is to establish regional centers for research activities. If approved by the Commission on Population, the proposal will bring about major changes in the research program, the most significant of which will be the establishment of research centers in 12 teacher-training institutions all over the country. Additionally, these institutions will offer consultative services to researchers in the field. The reorganization of the research program, as well as the eventual restructuring of the Training and Curriculum Units, anticipates the withdrawal of foreign financial assistance by 1977. In the decentralized setup, basic results gathered by regional research centers can be immediately consumed by the training or curriculum staff based in these institutions. With decentralization and the related activities, the Population Education Program shows itself capable of responding to emerging research needs.     

ASEAN projects reviewed

The ASEAN Population Expert Group met in Manila and was followed by a meeting of the ASEAN heads of population programs, during the period November 5-10, 1979. Heads of population programs from Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines attended. The meetings were held to review progress-to-date on phase 1 projects and to consider the development of an expanded population program. 5 projects funded by UNFPA are reviewed in tabular form with the project, the sponsoring country, date of implementation, data analysis, and date of completion. Suggestions were made for improving and extending these projects and it was also suggested that all projects being developed and proposed should include a section on use of research. 7 new projects were proposed as phase 2 projects. The 1st, sponsored by Malaysia, deals with women in development; project 2, lead by Thailand, will investigate population movement and its effect on development; project 3, led by the Philippines, will develop and strengthen national population information systems and networks in ASEAN countries; project 4, led by Indonesia, is directed towards institutional development and exchanges of personnel; project 5, led by the Philippines, will examine population and development dynamics and the man/resources balance; project 6, led by Thailand, will develop ASEAN social indicators; and project 7, led by Indonesia and Malaysia, will make a comprehensive analysis of existing medical/health care and family planning systems. It was recommended that an executive director of the proposed ASEAN population coordination unit should be appointed to expedite the recommendations of the meeting related to preparation and submission of phase 2 project proposals.     

Quality of life for students with disabilities in transition from school to adulthood

This paper examines quality-of-life concerns that pertain to secondary level students with disabilities who participate in high school programs in the United States. More specifically, we examine issues and programs that pertain to the “transition period” during which students leave school and begin to assume adult roles in their communities. The paper begins with an overview of major programs that have addressed this area over the past 25 years. We then present some contrasting definitions of quality of life, in order to provide a theoretical context for examining issues and concerns, ending with our recommendations for a taxonomy that can be used for operationally defining quality of life. Research findings from this perspective are presented next, followed by a discussion of ways in which quality-of-life information can beused to influence program and policy and policy decisions at both personal and institutional levels of discourse. We cite and describe several examples of such usage from our own experiences. The paper closes with some recommendations concerning what we must do in the future to improve quality of life for this population.     

Pakistan: re-organization at the top

New measures for population program planning have been introduced in Pakistan. 3 wings were added in the Population Planning Council: administration, coordination, and planning; operation; and technical. New elements in the program include: 1) setting up of new directorates; 2) opening of more family welfare clinics, model clinics, and sterilization centers; and 3) expansion of training facilities for medical and paramedical personnel. 2 national training institutions have been established: the Population Training Centre at Lahore, and the National Institute of Advanced Training at Hyderabad. 16 centers have training courses for doctors performing sterilization. There has been a restructuring of the information, education, and communication aspects of the program. The commercial distribution of contraceptives has become an important element. There are efforts to relate the program to other development programs.     

New strategies for slowing population growth

Growth of world population over the next 100 years, until the year 2100, will produce an estimated 11.5 billion people. The past focus on reducing rapid population growth exclusively through family planning has not been sufficient. Population policy needs to be broadened to include health care, education, and poverty reduction. The population policy recommendations of Population Council Vice-President John Bongaarts and Senior Associate Judith Bruce were to reduce unwanted pregnancies by expanding services that promote reproductive choice and better health, to reduce the demand for large families by creating favorable conditions for small families, and to invest in adolescents. The Population Council 1994 publication "Population Growth and Our Caring Capacity" outlined these issues. Another similar article by John Bongaarts appeared in the journal "Science" in 1994. In developing countries, excluding China, about 25% of all births are unwanted; 25 million abortions are performed for unwanted pregnancies. The provision of comprehensive family planning programs will go a long way toward achieving a reduction in unwanted pregnancies. In addition, changes are needed in male control over female sexuality and fertility and in cultural beliefs that are obstacles to use of contraception. Stabilization of population at 2 children per family will not occur unless there is a desire for small families. In most less developed countries, large family sizes are preferred. Governments have an opportunity to adopt policies that reduce economic and social risks of having small families. This can be accomplished through the widespread education of children, a reduction in infant and child mortality, improvement in the economic and social and legal status of women, and provision of equitable gender relations in marriage and child rearing. The rights of children to be wanted, planned, and adequately cared for need to be supported. These aforementioned measures will help to reduce fertility, provide support for small families, and justify investment in social development. Population momentum will keep population growing for some time even with replacement level fertility. Investment in adolescents through enhancement of self-esteem and promotion of later childbearing can lengthen the span between generations and slow population momentum. Population policies will be more effective when human rights are protected.     

Demographic behavior and the welfare state

The evaluation of the effects of tax and transfer programs on demographic behavior raises a number of difficult econometric issues related to identification of program effects. The main issue concerns whether there exists the true exogenous variation in program parameters necessary to estimate the effects of the program on behavior. This paper provides a discussion of the types of exogenous variation that are commonly available as well as the pitfalls in using potentially endogenous sources of variation. The general points are illustrated with an example drawn from the demographic literature in the United States. The paper concludes with a recommendation that the source of exogenous variation in program parameters be carefully examined in any study undertaken.Presented at the Second Annual Conference of the European Society for Population Economics, University of Mannheim, June 23–25, 1988. The author would like to thank the participants of the conference for their comments and, in particular, Bjorn Gustafsson, Siv Gustafsson, and Denis Kessler for their information on Swedish and French tax and transfer programs. Joseph Hotz also provided useful comments.     

Bangladesh

In Bangladesh the Population Control and Family Planning Division of the Ministry of Health and Population Control has decided to delegate increased financial and administrative powers to the officers of the family planning program at the district level and below. Currently, about 20,000 family planning workers and officials are at work in rural areas. The government believes that the success of the entire family planning program depends on the performance of workers in rural areas, because that is where about 90% of the population lives. Awareness of the need to improve statistical data in Bangladesh has been increasing, particularly in regard to the development of rural areas. An accurate statistical profile of rural Bangladesh is crucial to the formation, implementation and evaluation of rural development programs. A Seminar on Statistics for Rural Development will be held from June 18-20, 1980. The primary objectives of the Seminar are to make an exhaustive analysis of the current availability of statistics required for rural development programs and to consider methodological and operational improvements toward building up an adequate data base.     

Assessment of ASEAN population programme

The objectives of the 5th meeting of the ASEAN Heads of Population Program, held at Chiang Mai during November 1981, were the following: to discuss and consider the midterm reviews of some of the Phase 1 projects; to discuss and consider the ASEAN population experts' views on the progress made in the rest of the phase 1 projects; to discuss and consider the progress made in the implementation of the phase 2 projects; to discuss and consider the ASEAN population experts' recommendations on the ASEAN population program in the 1980s based on the report of the programming exercise submitted by the consultant in the expert group meeting; and to discuss administrative and other problems faced by the program implementors in the operationalization of the ongoing ASEAN population projects and provide appropriate directions to solve such problems. As a result of the programming exercise, the meeting established the directions for the future ASEAN population program and strongly recommended the continuation, intensification, and expansion of the ASEAN population program. A total of 12 projects comprise the ASEAN population program: 5 projects under phase 1 and 7 under phase 2. Under phase 1, 1 project has been completed, and the 1st parts of 2 other projects are in the process of implementation. Phase 2 projects, which started in September/October 1980, are all in the process of implementation. The following phase 1 projects are summarized: integration of population and rural development policies and programs; modular training for trainers of population and development agencies in ASEAN countries; multi-media support for population programs in the context of rural development in ASEAN countries; and migration in relation to rural development. The following phase 2 projects are also summarized: institutional development and exchange of personnel; women in development in ASEAN countries; and migration in relation to rural development. The following phase 2 projects are also summarized: institutional development and exchange of personnel; women in development; developing and strengthening national population information systems and networks in ASEAN countries; population and development dynamics and the human resource balance; studies on health and family planning in ASEAN countries; development of ASEAN social indicators; and population migratory movement and development.     

Comprehensive understanding of "truth of China's family planning practices"

This is an account of the tour by 25 U.S. Congressmen to the Peoples' Republic of China in November 1986 to determine the degree of coercion in the family planning program. 1st, the delegates attended a conference in Beijing, introducing the family planning program in China, lead by the minister of the China State Family Planning Commission. Then they had talks with researchers at the Population Research Centre. The group split up and some inspected the Nanjing Institute of Family Planning Management. Others went to Shanghai and visited the International Peace Hospital of Maternity and Child Care. 2 delegates travelled to a rural community in Jiangsu Province. Thus, the congressmen and women got a wide exposure of central authorities and local organizations. A spokesman for the Education, Science, Culture and Public Health Committee emphasized that the few incidents of coercion were exceptions, contrary to policy, and greatly spectacularized in the western press. Some cases were merely a variety of management style, and were dealt with by admonition. Women usually go for abortions on their own request. Those who have unplanned births are subject to social pressure and taxation. China's population policy must be respected as it is designed to meet her particular needs.     

Outreach: helping achieve coordination in the field

The outreach officials of the National Population Program of the Philippines, with its 4 basic functions of research, training, information-education-communication, and clinic services, are trying to solve pressing problems which have been an outgrowth of developments of the early 1970s when population and family planning concepts were integrated into other government programs. Given the task of attacking these problems and coordinating the whole program was the newly organized Commission on Population (Popcom). The organizations which had their own programs cooperated with the government agencies. Initially thought of as workable, the early strategy was soon found to be inadequate, and in July 1975, Popcom implemented an integrated development approach in population work. The strategy is complex, and as it undergoes refinement, the program may well profit from the experiences or lessions gained by a number of agencies in carrying out population/development activities. The approach used by the Office of Nonformal Education of the Philippines Rural Reconstruction Movement is seen as potentially helpful to the outreach project in developing 3 types of leadership in order to properly integrate or link private and public agencies, and ensure a continuing development program: political, educational, and technical. It is stressed that outsiders can help, but it is the community which must basically do the job themselves. So different government technicians are trained so that they can effectively train other people from the community, and do it in such a way that the program will be continuing and self-releasing.     

Toward a U.S. population policy

The gratifying media results from a concerted national and local publicity effort when Zero Population Growth (ZPG) released its recommendations for a national population policy are reported. Support was received from 10 members of Congress and local leaders. 8 ZPG chapters and the Washington office held press conferences casting the meaning of increased population growth in regional terms. In Cincinnati, ZPG focused on the shortage of landfill space, in San Francisco the water shortage, and in Massachusetts the rapid urbanization of prime farmland. The Congressmen emphasized that the U.S. must have a comprehensive population policy before it can tell other countries they must. Among the ZPG policies recommended are: zero population growth by 2008, increased funding for family planning services and education, special programs for teenagers, greater public education on population dynamics, increased funding for contraceptive research, enforcement of existing immigration laws, comprehensive review of immigration policy, equal rights for women, and more equitable income tax policy.     

Backing seen of population policy in AID

Congress is almost certain to agree to use of U.S. funds to motivate reduced population growth in developing countries but funding for sterilization abroad emerged as a political issue in the House. In the proposed U.S. AID budget, which in the past has been about 10% funded for direct population programs, a total concern with literacy for women, higher educational levels, and other developmental programs which increase motivation for family planning has been proposed. Zero Population Growth has sent telegrams to Congress supporting this basic development policy. The controversy over sterilization is the result of India's compulsory sterilization legislation. An amendment refusing to allow any U.S. funds to be used for sterilization programs was rejected, but in rejecting it, the members of the House of Representatives expressed their concern that any and all sterilization programs be completely voluntary. In a letter, AID Deputy Administrator Robert Nooter assured Congress that AID has no goals to sterilize any certain number of women around the world and it is not the main purpose of the AID program to to emphasize sterilization as a method of family planning.     

Fertility and eugenics: Singapore's population policies

Singapore, after serving for two decades as a model for Third World birth control and economic development programs, is now abandoning its earlier population policies in favor of encouraging dramatic population growth. The initial eugenics-based program introduced in 1984 sought increased fertility for university-educated women and provided major subsidies for the voluntary sterilization of poor and uneducated parents. These much publicized and internationally discussed programs have now been abandoned in favor of new population programs seeking to encourage fertility in lower as well as better educated groups. A forty percent population increase is being set as a goal. To accomplish this the effective Singapore Family Planning and Population Board has been abolished and Housing Development Board policies are in the process of being reversed to encourage rather than discourage fertility.The research reported here was partially funded by the Rockefeller Foundation and by a grant from the Population Council's International Research Awards Program on the Determinants of Fertility in Developing Countries, a program funded by the U.S. Agency for International Development.